America’s Constitutional Origins: PLS 1120 American Federal Government

The Age of Liberty – America’s Constitutional Origins – PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Living in the 21st century, it is sometimes difficult to imagine our country as a fledgling new nation experimenting with radical ideas of liberty and democracy.

Today, America is an economic and military superpower restrained only by its constitution, the American people, and the need to work with the international community to maintain peace and security in our global society. It is a much smaller world today than 243 years ago when our founding fathers declared the birth of our nation and relied on horses and sailing ships for transportation, and mail took weeks if not months to be delivered.

Image: U.S. Capitol Building, Washington, D. C. ThinkStock.

The United States has faced many challenges over the years. In the 18th century, the central question was nation building – how to establish a government that retained power in the people and yet prevented special interest groups or political parties from dominating our government at the expense of minority groups and individual liberty (Liberty!).

Today, we continue to fight the war on terrorism and, over the past few years, have faced the challenge of balancing how best to fight this war and protect our civil liberties. This is the central issue of our time. September 11th was a defining moment for Americans with both domestic and international implications.

The War in Iraq

We may not all agree on whether going to war with Iraq was a good idea, but we can acknowledge that it did help to shake things up a bit in the Middle East. The War removed a sponsor of terrorism and a key player and dominant influence in the region. The Iraqi elections inspired confidence that the Iraqi people want to govern themselves, and the formation of a unity government under the leadership of Prime Minister Nuri-al-Maliki in 2005 reassured the international community that their Iraqi leaders were willing to work together to govern a free and democratic Iraq.

On the left is an Iraqi woman flashing her finger dipped in dye to show she cast her ballot at An Najaf, Iraq, in 2005.

Image: U.S. Department of Defense. Public Domain.

As you are aware, it took five long months amidst insurgency attacks and religious and sectarian infighting to cobble together a permanent Iraqi government. It has been a formidable task to govern Iraq, much less to ensure freedom and the protection of minorities, but what has given us hope over these past years is that most people in Iraq want their lives to return to normal and to live without tyranny.

There have been legitimate questions raised about whether democracy can flourish in the greater Middle East. Democratic elections were held in Lebanon, Egypt (local), and in the Palestinian Authority in 2006. However, the Palestinians wanted new leadership, and they chose Hamas, a terrorist organization. Hamas does not recognize Israel’s right to exist. This new twist in Middle East geopolitics raised other questions. Are democratic countries necessarily more peaceful participants in the world community? Will these democratic elections enhance prospects for peace in the Middle East? Also, the war between Israel and Hezbollah in Lebanon raised additional questions of whether religious and ethnic differences would undermine efforts for democracy in the Middle East.

In our 2006 midterm elections, Americans showed in electing a new Democratic Congress that they wanted a change in U.S. policy in Iraq–some level of troop withdrawal. The Iraq Study Group (headed up by former Secretary of State James Baker and former Congressman and 9/11 Commission member Lee Hamilton) briefed President Bush and the U.S. Congress regarding their recommendations on how to proceed in Iraq. They recommended the need for a coordinated diplomatic, political, and military effort to stem the tide of sectarian violence and restore peace and stability in Iraq.

In early 2007, President Bush reviewed the Iraq Study Group’s recommendations and his advisors’ suggestions and announced his new Iraq policy. He recommended sending an additional 21,000 troops to stem the violence in Baghdad and to stabilize Iraq. Later that year, General David Petraeus, the U.S. Commander in Iraq, issued his report on the effectiveness of the “surge policy.” In response to General Petraeus’ findings, President Bush announced to the nation that “…the surge policy is working.” As you are aware, the goal of the surge was to provide security and to help Iraqi soldiers prepare to maintain it.

During that year, the situation in Iraq improved. Violence was significantly down to 2003 levels, and the United States shifted more responsibility over different areas to Iraqi security. The Iraqis began to pull together to address their security and domestic concerns. In effect, it appeared the leaders of most groups, Shia, Sunni, and Kurds, recognized it was time to set aside their differences or at least reflect them through the political process rather than on the streets. The Iraqi Government has made strides towards political reconciliation by allowing Baathist Party members to participate in government.

On January 31, 2009, Iraqis voted peacefully and enthusiastically in provincial elections. There was a 51% voter turnout. These elections were critical to dispersing power from Baghdad and giving more power to local governments.

To learn more, go check out the United Nations’ Iraqi Reconstruction .

On March 7, 2010, Iraq held parliamentary elections that went very smoothly with very little violence and little U.S. military support. Roughly 60%-65% of Iraqis turned out to vote. Although the opposition candidate edged out Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki, he could not form a coalition government. A new Iraqi coalition government headed by Maliki was cobbled together, and today the leaders of Iraq are trying to provide security and improved services to their citizens in spite of almost daily suicide bomb attacks. It will be interesting to watch Iraq’s experiment with democracy in the days, months, and years ahead.

As you are aware, the United States and Iraq signed a security agreement that outlined the process and withdrawal of American forces from that country. The first stage of withdrawal took place with American troops leaving Iraqi cities on June 30, 2009.

Also, the United States withdrew two brigades (12,000 soldiers) in September 2009, and in December 2009, there were no U.S combat fatalities. On August 31, 2010, President Obama fulfilled his promise to bring home all combat troops. The remaining 50,000 U.S. troops ended their supporting role on December 20, 2011.

In his address to the nation, President Obama described our approach to Iraq post-war: “This new approach reflects our long-term partnership with Iraq — one based upon mutual interest and mutual respect. Of course, violence will not end with our combat mission. Extremists will continue to set off bombs, attack Iraqi civilians, and try to spark sectarian strife. But ultimately, these terrorists will fail to achieve their goals. Iraqis are a proud people. They have rejected sectarian war, and they have no interest in endless destruction. They understand that, in the end, only Iraqis can resolve their differences and police their streets. Only Iraqis can build a democracy within their borders. What America can do, and will do, is provide support for the Iraqi people as both a friend and a partner”.

Source: President Barak Obama, August 31, 2010. “Remarks by the President in Address to the Nation on the End of Combat Operations in Iraq”. The White House. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2010/08/31/remarks-president-address-nation-end-combat-operations-iraq

To watch President Obama’s address to the nation or read his speech to the American people, click on the following links:

Remarks by the President in Address to the Nation on the End of Combat Operations in Iraq

President Obama’s Address on the End of the Combat Mission in Iraq

President Obama said, “(W)ith our diplomats and civilian advisors in the lead, we’ll help Iraqis strengthen institutions that are just, representative, and accountable. We’ll build new ties of trade and of commerce, culture and education, that unleash the potential of the Iraqi people. We’ll partner with an Iraq that contributes to regional security and peace, just as we insist that other nations respect Iraq’s sovereignty. As I told Prime Minister Maliki, we will continue discussions on how we might help Iraq train and equip its forces — again, just as we offer training and assistance to countries around the world. After all, there will be some difficult days ahead for Iraq, and the United States will continue to have an interest in an Iraq that is stable, secure, and self-reliant. Just as Iraqis have persevered through war, I’m confident that they can build a future worthy of their history as a cradle of civilization”.

Source: Office of the Press Secretary, October 21, 2011, Remarks by the President on Ending the War in Iraq. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/10/21/president-obama-has-ended-war-Iraq

Arab Spring

In 2011, protests erupted in the Middle East, now known as the “Arab Spring,” starting with protests in Tunisia, then spreading to Egypt, Yemen, Bahrain, Libya, and Syria. The young people demanded the end of tyranny and the establishment of freedom and democracy. Egypt established a Constitutional democracy as a result, and now again is facing a crisis with a military coup and the removal of President Morsi, and dissolution of parliament, and the power of the Muslim Brotherhood. The International community called for new elections to re-establish a democratic government. In 2014, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, a former military officer, was elected president of Egypt.

Source: CNN Staff. “Egypt declares el-Sisi winner of presidential election , ” June 4, 2014, https://www.cnn.com/2014/06/03/world/africa/egypt-presidential-election/

NATO established a no-fly zone in Libya in April 2011 to protect the people protesting against Gadhafi’s regime. They wanted Gadhafi to step down and for democracy to be established in their country. Rebels captured and killed Gadhafi and installed a transitional government in Tripoli, and NATO ended its mission in that country. A bloody civil war raged in Syria, with efforts by the opposition to remove Bashar al-Assad from power. Assad was re-elected president in 2014.

In an interview with Piers Morgan of CNN (3-16-11), Middle East expert, Tom Friedman, said “… [W]e can only hope that the people of the Middle East will go the way of Eastern Europe and not Somalia.”

Postscript

In 2014, the situation in Iraq was very fluid and quickly dissolving into chaos with the strong surprise invasion by the brutal al-Qaeda-affiliated terrorists known as the Islamists from the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). These hardened terrorists fighting in Syria swept into northern Iraq, taking a number of cities, including Mosul, with the help of disaffected Sunnis who were unhappy with the lack of economic opportunity and increased political isolation by former Prime Minister al-Maliki’s led Iraq government.

The ISIS and their Sunni supporters were on the outskirts of Baghdad, and Prime Minister al-Maliki called on the United States for help to oust these terrorists. Former President Obama has considered all his options, and he initially sent Marines to protect the U.S. embassy in Baghdad and advisors (special operations forces) to review the situation on the ground and to help train Iraqi soldiers. In early August 2014, the U.S. began air strikes to protect the Yazidis minority stranded without food and water on Mount Sinjar after trying to escape from ISIS. After rescuing this group, the U.S. supported the Kurds with air power, who were at the time attempting to take back the Mosul Dam, an important source of water for Iraq.

For more information, read this article on CNN’s website:

U.S. airstrikes critical in Mosul Dam capture

Source: Jethro Mullen, August 19, 2014. “U.S. airstrikes critical in Mosul Dam capture.” CNN.com. https://www.cnn.com/2014/08/18/world/meast/iraq-mosul-dam/index.html

Iraq held its local elections in April 2013, and Prime Minister Maliki’s party won the most seats in the parliament, giving him a third term (Source: “ Iraqis go to polls amid conflict, fears about security,” Washington Post, April 30, 2014 ). In the midst of this serious crisis, he was strongly encouraged to step aside so a new prime minister could form a new governing coalition and deal with this current crisis. At this time, there was greater hope that the new prime minister, Al-Abadi, would work to protect the interests of both the Sunni and Kurdish minorities and the Shia majority.

On December 9, 2017, Prime Minister Al-Abadi announced that Iraq had driven out ISIS from its territory and had control over its borders. At the end of the year, the Iraqi people were much more united and supportive of their leaders and armed forces (Source: New York Times article “Iraqi Prime Minister Declares Victory Over ISIS”, December 9, 2017). The U.S. continued to have special forces on the ground directing airstrikes against ISIS strongholds. Also, the U.S. led the successful effort to remove ISIS from its last stronghold on the northwestern border with Syria.

The critical question at the beginning of the Iraqi democratic experiment and later with the forceful entry of ISIS into the country was whether Iraq could survive as a state and whether this terrorist threat would force the Iraqi government to expand its political base of support and address the basic needs of its people. At the end of 2017, there was greater promise that Iraqis could come together now that ISIS had been defeated and address sectarian divisions, promote political reforms, and improve the Iraqi economy.

It will be interesting to see what relationship Iraq will have with Iran after its help in removing ISIS, and see if the new Prime Minister Adil Abd Al-Mahdi can address the Kurdish people’s desire for independence. The former Prime Minister Al-Abadi did not support the Kurdish vote for independence in 2017, and neither did the United States or Turkey.

Establishing federalism in this country is a work in progress. Maybe the Iraqis will one day establish an upper house in the parliament, much like our own, that represents the interests of the regions in Iraq, or establish more local authority and yet retain Kurdistan in the Iraqi union. The new Prime Minister is not from a major political bloc, and his cabinet is more technocratic, similar to 2005 (Source: CIAWorldFactBook, Iraq). Maybe he can bring these various ethnic groups together and improve the lives of the Iraqi people. It will continue to remain a challenging question on how best to address the political aspirations of the Kurdish people as well.

Although President Trump announced that the U.S. would withdraw troops from Syria in early 2019 now ISIS is defeated, his administration continued to remain engaged in Iraq not only to continue U.S. support of this fledgling democracy but to continue it efforts to help stabilize Iraq, prevent the rise of ISIS once again, and reduce Iranian influence in this country and region. Coalition partners continue to work with the United States as well in these efforts. Iran supported Iraq during its battle against ISIS with advisors, Revolutionary Guard troops, and the Iranian-supported Hezbollah terrorist organization, etc. Iraq is heavily dependent on Iran’s energy imports for electricity and energy needs, while it becomes more energy independent. The U.S. has strongly encouraged Iraq to get control of the roaming pro-Iranian militias, which the Iraqi Government is committed to doing, and to do its best to reduce its dependence on Iranian energy (Source: Near East Subcommittee of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, July 16, 2019. https://www.foreign.senate.gov/hearings/iraq-a-crossroads-of-us-policy-071619).

On January 3, 2020, President Trump ordered a drone strike killing the Iranian General, Qasem Soleimani, leader of the Quds Force (part of the elite Iranian Revolutionary Guard) that has led and trained Iranian supported militias in Iraq and the Houthis rebels in Yemen, the Hezbollah terrorist organization in Lebanon, Syria and Iraq, and throughout the Middle East, and engaged in proxy wars with the United States and its allies for many years. A critical player in Iran’s efforts to expand its influence in this region. General Soleimani was killed at the Baghdad Airport after attacks on the U.S. embassy by Iranian-supported Iraqi militiamen and killing a U.S. contractor and wounding other Americans at an Iraqi military base. Iran said that there would be a “harsh response.” National Security Advisor Robert O’Brien said that Soleimani was planning additional attacks on U.S. servicemen and diplomats (Source: Washington Post live coverage reporters. “National security adviser says Soleimani was plotting attacks on U.S. ‘soldiers, airmen, Marines, sailors and against our diplomats’,” Washington Post, January 3, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/iran-strike-live-updates/2020/01/03/3779f55c-2e33-11ea-bcb3-ac6482c4a92f_story.html).

In response to the protests, the Iraqi Prime Minister said he would step aside (Source: CIA World Factbook). On January 5, 2020, the Iraqi Parliament passed a nonbinding resolution calling on the Iraqi Government to expel foreign troops from the country. Prime Minister Abdul Mahdi urged Parliament to take “‘urgent measures and end foreign troop presence as soon as possible’” (Source: CNBC, Iraqi parliament calls for US troops to be expelled —coalition suspends operations against ISIS “, January 5, 2020).

To learn more, read this article on CNBC’s website:

Iraqi parliament calls for US troops to be expelled —coalition suspends operations against ISIS

Source: Kimball, Spencer, Jan 5, 2020. “Iraqi parliament calls for US troops to be expelled —coalition suspends operations against ISIS.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/05/iraq-prime-minister-says-parliament-must-end-foreign-troop-presence-as-soon-as-possible.html

On May 7, 2020, after months without a Prime Minister, the Iraqi Parliament approved a former journalist and intelligence officer as their new Prime Minister. Mustafa al-Kadhim is “close to the current Iraqi President Barham Salih and is accepted by both the United States and Iran (Source: Lovelock, Louise. “Iraqi names new prime minister, paving the way to tackle the nation’s deepening crisis,” May 7, 2020, Washington Post ) .

President Trump announced on September 9, 2020 that the United States would reduce its troops by half to 3,000 in Iraq roughly the same level as in 2015 during the early stages of fighting the Islamic State “Other members of the 29-coalition in Iraq have already cut their numbers in half, to about 1,200.” (Source: Schmitt, Eric. “U.S. to reduce troop levels in Iraq to 300,” DDN, September 10, 2020, A2).

Early in his first term, President Joe Biden ordered air strikes on Iranian-backed militias in Syria and Iraq in response to attacks on Americans and American facilities.

To learn more about these air strikes, please read this article from Reuters:

U.S. warplanes strike Iran-backed militia in Iraq, Syria

Source: Stewart, Phil. June 28, 2021. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/us-carries-out-air-strikes-against-iran-backed-militia-iraq-syria-2021-06-27/

Iraq held its fifth parliamentary election on October 10, 2021, since the U.S.-led invasion in 2003. Muqtada al-Sadr’s party won the most seats (74) in a surprise win, and the Iran-backed party lost seats in the Council of Representatives (national legislature) in this election. The Shia Muslim cleric was able to take advantage of the turbulent political situation, with many Iraqis impoverished, unhappy with the lack of opportunity and democratic reforms, and undue foreign influence. There was low voter turnout due to some groups boycotting the election (Source: Alaaldin, Ranj. “Muqtada al-Sadr’s problematic victory & the future of Iraq,” October 28, 2021, Brookings Institute, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/muqtada-al-sadrs-problematic-victory-and-the-future-of-iraq/).

On November 7, 2021, Prime Minister al-Kadhim’s home was targeted by a drone attack. Fortunately, he was unharmed. The Biden Administration called this a “terrorist attack” and offered support. The U.S. and the United Nations Security Council called this election essentially free and fair, but the Iranian-supported militias protested the results of this election and wanted a recount (Source: AP. “ Iraq’s prime minister has survived an assassination attempt .”NPR, November 7, 2021, https://www.npr.org/2021/11/06/1053277516/iraq-prime-minister-assassination-attempt).

Today, there is a new Iraqi Prime Minister, Mohammed Shia’ al Sudani, who was appointed Prime Minister on October 27, 2022 . With his opponent al-Sadr stepping out of politics for the time being, al-Sudani took office. These Shiite leaders and their supporters have been struggling to take power or to keep it. Al Sudani’s backers have the support of Iran. President Biden and al-Sudani agree that it is important to continue to reduce the influence of the remaining Islamic State members within Iraq, as well as regionally and around the world, and to support Iraq’s independence and sovereignty.

To learn more, read the transcript of this call between President Biden and Prime Minister al-Sudani:

Readout of President Biden’s Call with Prime Minister Mohammed Shia’ al-Sudani of Iraq

Source: The American Presidency Project. February 2, 2023. “Readout of President Biden’s Call with Prime Minister Mohammed Shia’ al-Sudani of Iraq.” https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/readout-president-bidens-call-with-prime-minister-mohammed-shia-al-sudani-iraq

Also, read the following article by the Brookings Institute that discusses the deep internal struggles among Shiite militias to control Iraq.

Shiite rivalries could break Iraq’s deceptive calm in 2023

Source: Alaaldin, Ranj, March 1, 2023. “Shiite rivalries could break Iraq’s deceptive calm in 2023.” The Brookings Institute. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2023/03/01/shiite-rivalries-could-break-iraqs-deceptive-calm-in-2023/

Iraqi leaders continue to face these challenges–dealing with both the Iranian and U.S. influence, the Sunni minority and Shia majority animosity, and continuing sectarian infighting, a struggling economy, endemic corruption, and the desire for Kurdish independence– but there are some positive successes.

You may want to watch a video with Gzero World Media’s Ian Bremmer on the 20th Anniversary of the Iraq War to get a better picture of the current situation in Iraq.

Iraq 20 Years Later

Source: Bremmer, Ian. March 18, 2023. “Iraq 20 Years Later.” PBS.org. https://www.pbs.org/video/iraq-20-years-later-mjmhg4/

What started as an effort to remove a state sponsor of terrorism and later the Arab Spring with hopes of freedom, democracy, and a better life for the people of the Middle East and northern Africa, some may argue that these events have produced even greater uncertainty, instability, and greater opportunities for extremists and tyrants in the region. We can only hope that with sufficient support, these nations can rise above these challenges and find the strength to fight off tyranny and bear the fruits of freedom and democracy America’s Constitutional Origins – PLS 1120 AMERICAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT