In Week 5, you were assigned by Faculty to argue either the pro (for) or con (against) for a particular medication. You were also provided information for a patient case study scenario. Week 5 was your opportunity to conduct research for this debate.
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This week, you will present and defend your assigned stance (pro or con) and specific medication for your patient case study scenario with your peers. Within the debate, you will also share your perspective on why the alternative medication class would not be appropriate for the patient case scenario.
Support your answers with evidence-based, peer-reviewed scholarly literature.
Note: APA style format with citations and references will apply.
As a reminder, these were the assigned medications:
Pro
Con
Amphetamine
Amphetamine
Methylphenidate
Methylphenidate
Alpha Adrenergic Agonist
Alpha Adrenergic Agonist
Non-Stimulant
Non-Stimulant
Resources
Be sure to review the Learning Resources before completing this activity.
Click the weekly resources link to access the resources.
WEEKLY RESOURCES
To prepare:
Review the Required Learning Resources.
Review your research regarding your position and medication.
Consider how you will apply your specific position and medication to the presented patient case.
By Day 3 of Week 6
Post your response detailing your argument for the following:
What is the proposed mechanism of action of the medication(s)? Why might this be appropriate for the patients?
What are the advantages or disadvantages to your class of medication (options for different administration, length of duration, etc.)?
What are the advantages or disadvantages to the other medication options?
What possible side effects or considerations need to be evaluated?
Provide one example for each consideration—legal, ethical, and social implications—for prescribing the medication category.
Note: Your response needs to be supported by three 3 scholarly peer-reviewed resources located outside of your course learning resources.
By Day 6 of Week 6
Read a selection of your colleagues’ posts. Focus specifically on those colleagues who were assigned your same medication but opposite stance.
Respond to at least two of your colleagues on 2 different days who were assigned your same medication but an opposite stance. For example, if you were assigned the con stance for amphetamine, you should respond to two students who were assigned the pro stance for amphetamine. Support or expand on your original argument to refute their claims. Work to share additional perspectives on the issue described by your colleague.
Note: It is recommended that you read all peer postings to learn about medications other than those to which you are assigned. Additionally, your response needs to be supported by two (2) scholarly peer-reviewed resources located outside of your course Learning Resources.
SA
Sherri Arrington
Apr 2, 2025 11pm | Last reply Apr 5, 2025 5:13pm
Reply from Sherri Arrington
Pro – Methylphenidate for Malcolm, a 9-year-old male in the 4th grade
What is the proposed mechanism of action of the medication(s)?
Methylphenidate is a derivative of benzylpiperazine and phenethylamine. Methylphenidate increases dopamine and norepinephrine in the synaptic cleft by blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine in the presynaptic neurons. This creates a stimulant effect in the central nervous system, primarily in the prefrontal cortex (Verghese, Patel, & Abdijadid, 2024).
Why might this be appropriate for the patients?
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is diagnosed in children and adolescents who display symptoms such as increased impulsivity, emotional outbursts, lack of self-control, lack of willingness to follow rules and social norms, lack of concentration in school, being fidgety and unable to sit still during class. This can be attributed to neurodevelopmental disorder where the brain structure is different in the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex (Burguete, Peydro, & Ventura, 2025). This is the area of the brain methylphenidate targets.
What are the advantages or disadvantages to your class of medication (options for different administration, length of duration, etc.)?
Methylphenidate is available in chewable tablets, oral solution, immediate-release tablets and caplets, extended-release tablets and caplets, oral disintegrating tablets, and transdermal patches. The extended-release is administered one time per day so it can be administered at home and parents do not have to rely on the school system to administer their children a schedule II medication (Verghese, Patel, & Abdijadid, 2024).
What are the advantages or disadvantages to the other medication options?
All medications for ADHD have advantages and disadvantages. However, I am supporting methylphenidate as the preferred choice for children diagnosed with ADHD, so I will focus on disadvantages of atomoxetine and amphetamines.
Atomoxetine has been shown to result in elevated liver enzymes, aggression, suicidal ideation in some patients. Amphetamines have been linked to adverse effects including cardiac events such as coronary artery dissection and hypertensive emergency. Both of these medications are linked to antisocial behavior (Wu, Zhao, Lan, Jin, & Yang, 2025).
What possible side effects or considerations need to be evaluated?
The Food and Drug Administration has an Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) which is a database that contains reported medication errors and adverse events of medications. FAERS can be accessed by the public sector and health care providers to report real time medication events as they occur. They compared reported adverse events of amphetamines, methylphenidate, and atomoxetine. The major adverse effects of amphetamines involved cardiac and neurologic events, the effects of atomoxetine involved elevated liver enzymes, and the effects of methylphenidate involved precocious puberty (Wu, Zhao, Lan, Jin, & Yang, 2025)
An important consideration for children with ADHD, especially for parents who strongly oppose medication options, is structured physical exercise (SPE). Sun, Fang, Chan, Poon, Chung, Or, Chen, & Cooper (2024) found that SPE is effective in managing symptoms of ADHD, either alone or as an adjunct to medication. As a grandparent raising a child, age 14, with ADHD, I can share some anecdotal evidence. Our grandchild started playing football in school and we noticed a positive change in his behavior at home and in school. Unfortunately, he sustained a plantaris rupture during off season practice and was unable to practice for 2 months. About one to two weeks out of training, he experienced a shift in his behavior that resulted in phone calls from the school and disciplinary actions at home. My husband mentioned to the school that we strongly suspected his shift in behavior was related to the injury and lack of exercise and/or involvement with his team. He started practicing again today so we will see how it goes, fingers crossed.
Provide one example for each consideration—legal, ethical, and social implications—for prescribing the medication category.
Legal considerations are the prescriber will be sure to consider drug interactions, food interactions, and adverse effects of the medication and provide education, verbal with signature to keep on file, and written. This is imperative to ensure the patient and family agree with treatment plan and are aware of the benefits and the risks of the medication. This also ensures they are aware of symptoms to report to the healthcare provider.
Zaami, Tagliabracci, Berretta, Busardò, & Marinelli, (2020) identified the need for physicians to be cautious in prescribing methylphenidate as a cognitive enhancer, unless there was a real medical need for the medicine. They warned these medications are not designed to help adult patients with procrastination, boredom, or fatigue, and it may not be ethical to prescribe methylphenidate for this purpose. Their suggestions were to patients who seek medications for these reasons is they should use practical methods such as intellectual exercise, education, a rewarding social life, and maintaining a healthy lifestyle rather than resorting to a pill.
Social considerations for prescribing medications for ADHD could include the lasting impact on the patient as this medication and diagnosisi will always be a part of their medical record and will follow the patient throughout their lifetime. This is especially true today with the electronic health record and easy access to patient’s previous visits to healthcare facilities.
References
Burguete, E., Peydro, L., & Ventura, I. (2025). Bioethical evaluation of methylphenidate and
atomoxetine for pediatric ADHD and cognitive enhancement. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine 20 (1). https://doi.rg/10.1186/s13010-025-00167-1 Links to an external site.
Sun, F., Fang, Y., Chan, C. K. M., Poon, E. T. C., Chung, L. M. Y., Or, P. P. L., Chen, Y., &
Cooper, S. B. (2024). Structured physical exercise interventions and children and
adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Child: Care, Health & Development , 50 (1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.13150 Links to an external site.
Verghese, C., Patel, P., & Abdijadid, S. (2024). Methylphenidate. National Library of Medicine.
Retrieved from Methylphenidate – StatPearls – NCBI BooksheMlf Links to an external site.
Wu L, Zhao D, Lan Y, Jin L, & Yang L. (2025). Comparison of serious adverse effects of
methylphenidate, atomoxetine and amphetamine in the treatment of ADHD: an adverse event analysis based on the FAERS database. BMC Pharmacology & Toxicology , 26 (1),
Zaami, S., Tagliabracci, A., Berretta, P., Busardò, F. P., & Marinelli, E. (2020). Use of
Methylphenidate Analogues as Cognitive Enhancers: The Prelude to Cosmetic Neurology and an Ethical Issue. Frontiers in psychiatry , 10 , 1006. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.01006 Links to an external site.
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Clinton C Alozie
Apr 2, 2025 10:56pm | Last reply Apr 5, 2025 4:23pm
Reply from Clinton C Alozie
ADHD treatment with Patients’ Scenarios
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development. For patient 1, Malcolm, psychostimulants Amphetamine and Methylphenidate were selected and are listed as the first-line medications for ADHD symptoms. Studies show that stimulant drugs seem to have a potential protective effect on functional and behavioral outcomes, especially in adolescents with ADHD (Santos et al., 2021). Malcolm, a 9-year-old male who is newly diagnosed with ADHD with active symptoms, will benefit from these medications.
Mechanism of action : The dopamine transporter is known to be blocked by psychostimulants like Methylphenidate. This prevents dopamine from being reabsorbed in the presynaptic terminals and enhances dopamine and norepinephrine releases primarily in the prefrontal cortex (Hamard et al., 2024).
Results of a meta-analyses study suggest that methylphenidate may improve the ADHD symptoms reported by the teacher, the general behavior reported by the teacher, and the quality of life reported by parents (Santos et al., 2021).
Advantages of stimulants such as Methylphenidate include high effectiveness in acute symptoms of ADHD : Stimulants such as Methylphenidate stand as one of the first-line treatments for ADHD, especially because of their quick-acting nature and effectiveness in improving focus and reducing hyperactivity.
Disadvantages of stimulants include higher side effects including risk of psychosis : Among the potential side effects of these stimulants, a study shows that the risk of onset of psychosis episodes was reported, and when compared between Amphetamine and Methylphenidate, it was concluded that Amphetamine use was associated with a greater risk of psychosis than methylphenidate use (Hamard et al., 2024). Another disadvantage involves high risk for abuse and addiction. The frequently reported side effects are decreased appetite, sleep disturbance, stomachache, and headache, while less frequent is the emergence or worsening of tics (Masi et al., 2022).
The ethical principle of “do no harm” : Prescribers are required by the ethical principle of “do no harm” to weigh the possible advantages of stimulants in reducing symptoms of ADHD against the dangers of dependency and adverse consequences.
Non-stimulants
Non-stimulants such as Atomoxetine can also be used to treat Malcolm, however, they can be more appropriate for Patient 2, Jessica. Atomoxetine, a Selective Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor, works by enhancing the availability of norepinephrine in the brain, thereby improving attention and focus. Some of the advantages include : Stimulants may be a better alternative for patients who experience adverse effects of stimulants. Stimulants have a low risk for abuse and addiction when compared to stimulants. At the age of 32, Jessica may be more likely to suffer abuse and addiction to stimulants and will benefit from non-stimulant medication. Like stimulants, they can also improve attention, focus, and impulsiveness NURS-6630 Week 6: Discussion Patient Case Scenario Debate.
Disadvantages of Non-stimulants : Unlike Methylphenidate, one of the major disadvantages of non-stimulants is that for Malcolm’s immediate disturbances in the classroom, non-stimulants might not be the best option because they can take weeks to become fully effective. On the other hand, Jessica, at the age of 32, has less impulsivity and does not physically attack others, a non-stimulant will be more suitable. It might involve a period of trial and error in finding a suitable non-stimulant medication. Hence, Malcolm and his parents may experience weeks or months of frustration as a result of trial and error in determining the appropriate non-stimulant drug and the appropriate dosage. And they are not suitable for all individuals with ADHD. Similarly, both stimulants and non-stimulants can be used effectively in conjunction with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to treat patients with ADHD.
Side Effects of Non-stimulants : Some of the side effects include dry mouth, constipation, drowsiness, and changes in blood pressure and heart rate. These effects are increased with Atomoxetine (Nie, 2023).
Consideration for legal, ethical, and social implications : One consideration when prescribing non-stimulant medication for Jessica includes the ethical principle of informed consent to treatment. To ensure that patients or their guardians can make educated decisions, doctors have an ethical obligation to fully inform patients about the advantages, disadvantages, and alternatives to stimulant medications
References
Hamard, J., Rousseau, V., Durrieu, G., Garcia, P., Yrondi, A., Sommet, A., Revet, A., &
Montastruc, F. (2024). Psychosis with use of amphetamine drugs, methylphenidate and atomoxetine in adolescent and adults. BMJ Mental Health , 27 (1). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjment-2023-300876 Links to an external site.
Masi, G., Pfanner, C., Liboni, F., Lenzi, F., Villafranca, A., D’Acunto, G., Fantozzi, P., Falcone,
F., Simonelli, V., Muratori, P., Levantini, V., Favole, I., Amianto, F., Davico, C., & Vitiello, B. (2022). Acute tolerability of methylphenidate in treatment-naïve children with ADHD: An analysis of naturalistically collected data from clinical practice. Pediatric Drugs, 24 (2), 147-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40272-022-00492-4 Links to an external site.
Nie, T. (2023). Manage early morning ADHD symptoms and functional impairment with
treatments that are effective from awakening. Drugs & Therapy Perspectives, 39 (8), 287-291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40267-023-01013-0 Links to an external site.
Santos, G. M., Santos, E. M., Mendes, G. D., Fragoso, Y. D., Souza, M. R., & Martimbianco, A.
C. (2021). A review of Cochrane reviews on pharmacological treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Dementia & Neuropsychologia , 15 (4), 421–427. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642021dn15-040001 Links to an external site.
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Allan Kasozi Musoke
Apr 2, 2025 9:09pm | Last reply Apr 4, 2025 11:47pm
Reply from Allan Kasozi Musoke
Main discussion: Prescription Medications for Amphetamines and Non-Stimulants
Amphetamines and non-stimulants like Atomoxetine are two standard medication classes used for ADHD treatment, each with distinct mechanisms of action, benefits, and drawbacks. Understanding their appropriateness for different patients is crucial in determining the best treatment approach for Malcolm, a hyperactive and impulsive child, and Jessica, an adult struggling with workplace distractions.
Amphetamines, such as Adderall (amphetamine-dextroamphetamine), work by enhancing the release of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, which improves attention, impulse control, and hyperactivity (Martin & Le, 2023). This mechanism makes amphetamines particularly suitable for Malcolm, who struggles with staying seated, completing tasks, and managing his emotions. The rapid onset of action enables quick symptom relief, allowing him to stay focused in school and follow through with tasks at home. Similarly, amphetamines can benefit Jessica by helping her sustain attention, stay on task at work, and minimize distractions from her coworkers. The availability of different formulations, including short-acting and long-acting options, allows for flexible dosing to accommodate varying daily needs.
Despite their effectiveness, amphetamines come with notable disadvantages. They have a high potential for abuse and dependency, particularly in adults, making them a less than ideal option for patients with a history of substance use. Common side effects include appetite suppression, insomnia, increased heart rate, and mood changes, all of which require careful monitoring. In children, long-term use may also impact growth. Compared to non-stimulants like Atomoxetine, amphetamines offer faster symptom relief but carry a higher risk of misuse and cardiovascular side effects (Nanda et al., 2023). Legal considerations also play a role, as amphetamines are classified as Schedule II controlled substances, necessitating strict prescribing regulations. Ethically, prescribers must weigh the risk of dependency against the benefits of symptom management, especially in adults. Socially, stimulant medications often carry a stigma, particularly for children, with parents’ concerns about their child being “drugged” for behavioral issues.
Non-stimulants, such as Atomoxetine (Strattera), offer an alternative treatment option by selectively inhibiting norepinephrine reuptake, thereby improving focus and impulse control without directly affecting dopamine levels (Ilipilla & Arnold, 2024). This makes Atomoxetine an attractive option for Malcolm if his parents prefer a non-stimulant approach or if he has comorbid anxiety, as stimulants can sometimes exacerbate anxiety symptoms. For Jessica, Atomoxetine provides a non-controlled, long-acting solution with 24-hour symptom control, helping her maintain focus throughout the day without the risk of stimulant misuse.
One of the key advantages of Atomoxetine is that it is not a controlled substance, making it easier to prescribe and manage without strict regulatory restrictions. It also provides consistent symptom control beyond the typical work or school hours, which may benefit adults requiring long-term concentration (Fedder et al., 2023). However, the main drawback of atomoxetine is its delayed onset of action, which takes two to four weeks to notice noticeable improvement. Side effects include nausea, fatigue, and potential increases in blood pressure. While it is less likely to cause addiction or exacerbate anxiety, its efficacy for hyperactivity symptoms may not be as strong as amphetamines. From a legal perspective, Atomoxetine’s status as a non-controlled substance simplifies prescribing but still requires monitoring for potential side effects. Ethically, providers must set realistic expectations for patients, as the delayed onset may lead to frustration. Socially, non-stimulants may be preferred by individuals concerned about addiction or the stigma associated with stimulant use.
Conclusion
Amphetamines and non-stimulants each offer valuable treatment options for ADHD, but the choice of medication should be tailored to the patient’s specific needs and risk factors. For Malcolm, amphetamines provide rapid symptom relief, helping him manage hyperactivity and impulsivity, though concerns about side effects and dependency must be addressed. For Jessica, non-stimulants like Atomoxetine may be a preferable long-term solution, particularly if she wants to avoid stimulant-related risks. Carefully considering efficacy, safety, legal restrictions, and individual preferences is essential in making an informed treatment decision.
References
Fedder, D., Patel, H., & Saadabadi, A. (2023, March 27). Atomoxetine . PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493234/ Links to an external site.
Ilipilla, G., & Arnold, L. E. (2024). The role of adrenergic neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitors in the ADHD armamentarium. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy , 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2024.2369197 Links to an external site.
Martin, D., & Le, J. K. (2023, July 31). Amphetamine . PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556103/ Links to an external site.
Nanda, A., Sai, L., Sambe, H. G., Yasir, M., Eyn, R., Gogikar, A., & Mohammed, L. (2023). Adverse effects of stimulant interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A comprehensive systematic review. Cureus , 15 (9). https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.45995 Links to an external site.
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Allan Kasozi Musoke
Apr 2, 2025 9pm
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LT.docx
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Elizabeth Longrie
Apr 2, 2025 8:52pm | Last reply Apr 5, 2025 9:03am
Reply from Elizabeth Longrie
Main Discussion Post
(Scenario 1) – 9-year-old
The first line of treatment for ADHD for both adults and pediatrics are the stimulant medications. For my 9-year-old, I’d prescribe Methylphenidate. This medication’s mechanism of action is through the blockage of dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake, leading to the increase of these neurotransmitters’’ in the synaptic cleft ( Verghese ET AL., 2024) . Both Dopamine and norepinephrine promote motivate, focus, alertness and attention. A decrease in their levels is what leads to ADHD. Therefore, a stimulant would promote their reuptake as discussed.
Compared to amphetamine which is the other stimulant medication, and commonly prescribed to this population, methylphenidate is often associated with less side effects , and have a lower potential of abuse . This medication also is available as short-acting, intermediate and long-acting and prides itself in being the most effective as it improves attention, controls hyperactivity and impulsivity ( Cortese, 2023) .
Some disadvantages/side effects of Methylphenidate include sleep disturbance/concerns, appetite suppression leading to weight loss and depending on the formulation used, can only last a few hours .
Legal, ethical and social implications of prescribing Methylphenidate and Amphetamine : Considering these medications are stimulants and have the potential for abuse, stricter prescriptions rules need to be adhered to. A provider needs to monitor refills and ensure it is safely being administered to the intended patient as there’s a risk of this medication to be diverted. A consent is required from the parent or legal guardian when prescribing this medication considering the age of the patient (Pereira ET AL., 2021).
(Scenario 2) – 32-year-old female
As opposed to a pediatric, there could be other life stressors contributing to an adult’s ADHD – parenthood, school, job loss et cetera. For my 32-year-old female patient, amphetamines are considered more effective (Chong et al., 2023).
Mechanism of action: being a stimulant, its mechanism of action is similar to that of the methylphenidate in that, it allows for the increment of the amounts of dopamine and norepinephrine in the synaptic cleft, both of which are critical neuro-transmitters in patients with ADHD.
Advantages: due to its ability to have longer duration of action, it often is more preferred as it only requires a smaller dose to be effective.
Disadvantages: compared to the methylphenidate, amphetamines have the highest potential for dependence and withdrawal symptoms. It also is associated with a greater risk of psychosis.
Side effects: Appetite suppression, GI upset/SLUDGE, Insomnia, palpitations (Martin & Le, 2023).
Legal, ethical and social implications of prescribing Amphetamine: Due to it having a high potential for abuse and misuse, prescribers need to closely monitor refills to help minimize diversion and overdependence. Ethically, it is prudent that providers do not over-diagnose therefore leading to overtreatment. There’s bound to be peer pressure on patients with prescribed drug of this class due to the meth content therein (Chamakalayil et al., 2021).
Generally speaking, ADHD has the potential of negatively impacting an individual’s lifestyle if not treated well. It is important that treatment regimen is customized to the individual and all aspects of dynamics taken into account (Sarari et al., 2023).
References
Chamakalayil, S., Strasser, J., Vogel, M., Brand, S., Walter, M., & Dürsteler, K. M. (2021). Methylphenidate for Attention-Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder in Adult Patients With Substance Use Disorders: Good Clinical Practice. Frontiers in psychiatry , 11 , 540837. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.540837 Links to an external site.
Chong, T. T., Fortunato, E., & Bellgrove, M. A. (2023). Amphetamines Improve the Motivation to Invest Effort in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience , 43 (41), 6898–6908. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0982-23.2023 Links to an external site.
Cortese, S. (2023). Evidence-based prescribing of medications for ADHD: where are we in 2023? Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy , 24 (4), 425–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2023.2169604
Martin D, Le JK. Amphetamine. [Updated 2023 Jul 31]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556103/
Pereira Ribeiro, J., Arthur, E. J., Gluud, C., Simonsen, E., & Storebø, O. J. (2021). Does Methylphenidate Work in Children and Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder? Pediatric Reports , 13 (3), 434-443. https://doi.org/10.3390/pediatric13030050 Links to an external site.
Salari, N., Ghasemi, H., Abdoli, N., Rahmani, A., Shiri, M. H., Hashemian, A. H., Akbari, H., & Mohammadi, M. (2023). The global prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Italian journal of pediatrics , 49 (1), 48. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-023-01456-1
Verghese C, Patel P, Abdijadid S. Methylphenidate. [Updated 2024 Oct 29]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482451/
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Tilahun G Arri
Apr 2, 2025 8:16pm | Last reply Apr 5, 2025 7:54pm
Reply from Tilahun G Arri
ADHD Medication Classes: Amphetamine vs Non-Stimulant
This document outlines the pros and cons of two medication classes for ADHD, Amphetamines and Non-simulants, applied to two patient cases: Malcolm, a 9-year-old boy, and Jessica, a 32-year-old woman.
Mechanism of Action & Appropriateness
Amphetamine
– MOA: Increases dopamine and norepinephrine release and inhibits reuptake.
– Malcolm: FDA-approved for children, effective for hyperactivity and impulsiveness.
– Jessica: Rapid symptom relief suitable for workplace functioning (Castells et al., 2018.; Cortese et al., 2023).
Non-Stimulant (e.g., Atomoxetine)
– MOA: Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor.
– Malcolm: Suitable if there’s a concern for stimulant misuse or comorbid anxiety.
– Jessica: Preferred for history of substance use or desire for non-stimulant options (Cojocaru et al., 2021).
Advantages & Disadvantages
Amphetamine
Pros:
– Rapid onset (30–60 minutes)
– High efficacy
– Multiple formulations (short, intermediate, long-acting)
Cons:
– Risk of misuse
– May worsen tics, anxiety, insomnia
– Requires close monitoring (Cortese et al., 2023).
Non-Stimulant
Pros:
– Lower abuse potential
– 24-hour coverage
– Suitable for comorbid anxiety/sleep disorders
Cons:
– Slower onset (2–4 weeks)
– Less effective for some
– Possible liver enzyme issues or mood changes (Cojocaru et al., 2021).
Comparative Evaluation
– Amphetamines offer faster relief but come with a higher risk of side effects and misuse.
– Non-stimulants are safer for long-term use or patients at risk of misuse but may be slower and less effective. (Cortese et al., 2023).
Possible Side Effects or Considerations
Amphetamine
– Weight loss
– Insomnia
– Elevated heart rate/BP
– Risk of diversion
(Smith, 2023)
Non-Stimulant
– insomnia
– Fatigue
– Nausea
– Mood changes
(Smith, 2023)
Legal, Ethical, & Social Implications
From a legal perspective, amphetamines carry a higher risk of diversion due to their DEA Schedule II status, which mandates strict prescribing guidelines and close monitoring, which is particularly important when prescribing to adolescents, as in Malcolm’s case (Research, 2023). In contrast, non-stimulants are not classified as controlled substances, making them subject to fewer legal restrictions and more accessible for prescribing through telehealth or across state lines.
On an ethical level, amphetamines present the risk of overprescription or being prescribed without a comprehensive diagnostic evaluation (Dunlop & Newman, 2016). Conversely, choosing non-stimulants to avoid stimulants may delay effective symptom control, which raises ethical concerns, especially when stimulants are clinically indicated.
The social implications between these medication classes vary significantly. Amphetamines are often stigmatized due to their association with illicit stimulants like ‘speed,’ which can be alarming for parents of young children such as Malcolm. This stigma may lead to concerns about long-term dependency or negative labeling by peers and the broader community (Mueller et al., 2012). On the other hand, non-stimulants may be perceived as less effective or “weaker” treatments. Jessica, for example, might feel that her symptoms are not being taken seriously if she is started on a non-stimulant despite expressing a desire for quick symptom relief.
Conclusion
Both amphetamines and non-stimulants can be effective treatments for ADHD, depending on individual patient factors. Malcolm may benefit from a fast-acting stimulant, while Jessica may prefer a non-stimulant for long-term safety and lower risk of misuse.
References
Castells, X., Blanco-Silvente, L., & Cunill, R. (2018). Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 8(8). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd007813.pub3 Links to an external site.
Cortese, S. (2023). Evidence-based prescribing of medications for ADHD: where are we in 2023? Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy , 24(4). https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2023.2169604
Cojocaru, A., Hogea, L. M., Poroch, V., Simu, M. A., Enatescu, V. R., Jeleriu, R., Andreescu, N. I., Puiu, M., Hogea, B. G., Grigoras, M., Folescu, R., Zamfir, C. L., Enatescu, I., & Nussbaum, L. A. (2021). Effectiveness of Psychostimulant and Non-Psychostimulant Drug Therapy in the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Applied Sciences , 11(2), 502. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11020502 Links to an external site.
Dunlop, A. J., & Newman, L. K. (2016). ADHD and psychostimulants — overdiagnosis and overprescription. Medical Journal of Australia, 204(4), 139–139. https://doi.org/10.5694/mja15.01387 Links to an external site.
Mueller, A. K., Fuermaier, A. B. M., Koerts, J., & Tucha, L. (2012). Stigma in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders , 4(3), 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-012-0085-3 Links to an external site.
Research, C. for D. E. and. (2023). Prescription Stimulant Medications. FDA. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/information-drug-class/prescription-stimulant-medications Links to an external site.
Smith, K. T. (2023). ADHD in Children and Adolescents: Barriers to Ethical and Successful Treatment. Journal of Biosciences and Medicines , 11(3), 58–63. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbm.2023.113007
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Beanca Patrice Enojas Abilo
Apr 2, 2025 7:58pm | Last reply Apr 4, 2025 8:53pm
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Amphetamines enhance attention, focus, and impulse control by increasing dopamine and norepinephrine levels in the brain, a mechanism that involves inhibiting the reuptake of these neurotransmitters, thereby improving neurotransmission (Faraone, 2018). Amphetamine, in particular, is indicated as a first line agent for ADHD in adults and for children who are six years old or older (Martin & Le, 2023). One advantage for this medication is its rapid onset. Effects can be experienced within 30 to 45 minutes of taking the medication (Boorady, 2025). In addition, these medications allow flexibility in dosing due to its availability in short-acting and long-acting forms. While amphetamine-based medications are a common and effective treatment for ADHD, research indicates that they are not always well tolerated, and patients may discontinue treatment due to adverse reactions (Castells et al., 2018). The most common adverse effects associated with this class of medications include decreased appetite, insomnia, headaches, abdominal pain, and elevated blood pressure and pulse (Mechler et al., 2022). Amphetamines are also associated with a potential for abuse and are classified as controlled substances. One legal consideration to consider with prescribing amphetamines is the potential for misuse. It is crucial for prescribers to follow the strict guidelines associated with prescribing controlled substances. In terms of ethics, the prescriber must review and balance the benefits of improved health outcomes against the risk of addiction. Furthermore, the potential for social stigma should be considered as this may discourage patients to adhere to their treatment plan. Referring the patient to counseling or providing resources for support groups can help the patient with these challenges.
Non-stimulant ADHD medications, like atomoxetine (Strattera), can be used as monotherapy or as adjunctive therapy alongside stimulants. This type of medications increases norepinephrine levels in the brain, which help improve attention, focus, and reduce impulsivity and hyperactivity (Fu et al., 2022). An advantage associated with non-stimulant medications is that they have a low abuse potential since they are not controlled substances. In addition, they can provide extended times for symptom control, without peaks and troughs associated with stimulants (Miller & Harper, 2024). On the other hand, non-stimulant medications for ADHD typically take longer to start working compared to stimulants, often requiring several weeks for their full therapeutic effect to be felt (Caldwell, 2025). Common side effects associated with these medications include decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, insomnia (Pang & Sareen, 2021). Non-stimulant medications still require a prescription but are associated with fewer legal concerns due to the lower risk of misuse. Ethical considerations for non-stimulant ADHD medications include ensuring informed consent and reviewing potential side effects and long-term effects with patient. This process allows the patient to practice autonomy and participate in shared decision-making. One social consideration for this class of medications is socioeconomic status. Non-stimulant ADHD medications, like Strattera and Qelbree, can be expensive. However, use of generic options can help reduce cost.
References:
Boorady, R. (2025, March 5). Stimulant Medications for ADHD . Retrieved April 2, 2025, from https://childmind.org/article/understanding-adhd-medications/
Caldwell, M. (2025, January 12). How Long Does It Take for ADHD Medication to Work? Retrieved April 2, 2025, from https://www.thecenterforadhd.com/how-long-does-it-take-for-adhd-medication-to-work/
Castells, X., Blanco-Silvente, L., & Cunill, R. (2018). Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews , 8 (8), CD007813. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007813.pub3
Faraone S. V. (2018). The pharmacology of amphetamine and methylphenidate: Relevance to the neurobiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other psychiatric comorbidities. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews , 87 , 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.001
Fu, D., Wu, D. D., Guo, H. L., Hu, Y. H., Xia, Y., Ji, X., Fang, W. R., Li, Y. M., Xu, J., Chen, F., & Liu, Q. Q. (2022). The Mechanism, Clinical Efficacy, Safety, and Dosage Regimen of Atomoxetine for ADHD Therapy in Children: A Narrative Review. Frontiers in psychiatry , 12 , 780921. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.780921
Martin, D., & Le, J. K. (2023). Amphetamine. In StatPearls . StatPearls Publishing.
Miller, C., & Harper, T. (2024, December 3). What Are Nonstimulant Medications for ADHD? Retrieved April 2, 2025, from https://childmind.org/article/what-are-nonstimulant-medications-for-adhd/
Mechler, K., Banaschewski, T., Hohmann, S., & Häge, A. (2022). Evidence-based pharmacological treatment options for ADHD in children and adolescents. Pharmacology & therapeutics , 230 , 107940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2021.107940
Pang, L., & Sareen, R. (2021). Retrospective analysis of adverse events associated with nonstimulant ADHD medications reported to the United States food and drug administration. Psychiatry research , 300 , 113861.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113861
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Anna Zaretski
Apr 2, 2025 7pm | Last reply Apr 6, 2025 9:31pm
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Anna Zaretski
NURS 6630N-1
Week 6 Main Post Response
Patient #1 Malcolm is a 9-year-old fourth-grade student who has recently been diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), combined presentation. He exhibits hallmark features of both inattention and hyperactivity, including difficulty remaining seated, blurting out responses in class, impulsive physical behaviors such as hitting peers when frustrated, and an inability to sustain attention on tasks at home, such as completing homework or following through with chores. His distractibility also affects daily functioning—for instance, he often leaves tasks incomplete and misplaces important items like the lock combination for the house. These symptoms are interfering with his academic performance, family dynamics, and social relationships, making pharmacologic intervention an important part of his treatment plan.
Methylphenidate, a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant, is a first-line treatment for pediatric ADHD and would be an appropriate choice for Malcolm. This medication exerts its therapeutic effect by blocking the reuptake of dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) in the brain, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, where attention, behavioral regulation, and executive functioning are controlled (Stahl et al., 2023). By increasing the availability of these neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft, Methylphenidate enhances focus, impulse control, and task completion—symptoms that are prominently affecting Malcolm’s daily functioning (Rosenthal & Burchum, 2021). Given Malcolm’s difficulty with sustained attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity, this medication could significantly improve both his academic and behavioral outcomes.
One of the key advantages of Methylphenidate is its wide range of formulations, including immediate-release, extended-release, and transdermal patch options. These allow for flexibility in tailoring treatment to meet a child’s daily schedule and minimize the need for in-school dosing, which can reduce stigma and improve adherence (CDC, 2024). The rapid onset of action—typically within 30 to 60 minutes—and duration options ranging from 3 to 12 hours make it a convenient and effective option for school-aged children. Moreover, stimulant medications like Methylphenidate have been shown to reduce core symptoms in up to 70–80% of children with ADHD, improving both behavior and academic functioning (Faraone et al., 2021).
However, Methylphenidate also carries some disadvantages. It is classified as a Schedule II controlled substance due to its potential for abuse, dependence, and diversion, which necessitates careful monitoring and regulated prescribing (Goodman & Mattingly, 2023). Common side effects include decreased appetite, insomnia, abdominal pain, and mood changes. Long-term use may also impact growth velocity, so regular monitoring of height and weight is essential (Rosenthal & Burchum, 2021). Additionally, cardiovascular health must be evaluated before starting treatment, particularly in children with a family history of cardiac abnormalities.
While stimulant medications are generally considered the most effective pharmacologic option, non-stimulant alternatives such as atomoxetine or extended-release alpha-agonists (e.g., guanfacine) may be appropriate for children who do not tolerate stimulants well or have coexisting conditions such as anxiety. These alternatives tend to have a slower onset of action and may be less effective at managing hyperactivity and impulsivity (Stahl et al., 2023). Non-pharmacologic interventions, such as behavioral therapy or digital health tools, may also be useful adjuncts but are often less effective when used alone for moderate to severe cases (Pandian et al., 2021; Lindvall et al., 2023).
Prescribing stimulant medication like Methylphenidate also involves important legal, ethical, and social considerations. Legally, clinicians must adhere to state and federal guidelines for controlled substances, including routine follow-up and documentation for monthly prescriptions. Ethically, informed consent must be obtained from the child’s parents or guardians, ensuring they understand the risks, benefits, and alternatives to treatment—especially given rare but serious risks like sudden cardiac events in predisposed children (Stahl et al., 2023). Socially, stigma surrounding psychiatric medications may impact Malcolm’s self-esteem or peer relationships. Families may also face external judgment or internal concerns about long-term use, emphasizing the need for psychoeducation and collaborative care planning.
In summary, Methylphenidate offers an evidence-based, flexible, and effective treatment option for Malcolm’s ADHD symptoms. While it requires careful monitoring and informed decision-making, its benefits in improving attention, behavior, and overall functioning can be substantial when combined with supportive care and regular follow-up.
Patient #2 Jessica is a 32-year-old woman recently diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) following a comprehensive psychological assessment. She has experienced longstanding challenges in both academic and occupational settings, frequently receiving disciplinary actions at work for incomplete tasks and difficulty staying focused. Jessica reports becoming easily distracted by conversations with colleagues and often engages in excessive talking, which disrupts others and has led to tension in her professional relationships. Given her symptoms of distractibility, impulsivity, and executive dysfunction, pharmacologic treatment with a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant such as amphetamine may be appropriate to address her impairments in attention and productivity.
Amphetamine is a mixed salt formulation that includes both dextroamphetamine and levoamphetamine. It is FDA-approved for the treatment of ADHD in adults and is considered a first-line pharmacologic option (CDC, 2024). Amphetamines increase synaptic concentrations of dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) by promoting their release and inhibiting their reuptake in the central nervous system (Rosenthal & Burchum, 2021). These neurotransmitters are critical for attention regulation, impulse control, and executive functioning—areas where Jessica is currently struggling. By enhancing DA and NE activity in the prefrontal cortex, amphetamines improve focus, task completion, and behavioral regulation, which could help Jessica remain on task and reduce workplace disruptions (Stahl et al., 2023).
One of the key advantages of amphetamines is their demonstrated efficacy in reducing ADHD symptoms in adults. Approximately 70% of individuals with ADHD report symptom improvement and enhanced quality of life when treated with stimulants (Faraone et al., 2021). Amphetamines are available in both immediate-release and extended-release formulations, allowing for dosing flexibility depending on individual needs. Extended-release forms offer the benefit of once-daily dosing with symptom coverage throughout the workday, improving adherence and reducing the need for mid-day dosing. The onset of action is typically within 30 to 60 minutes, with effects lasting 6 to 12 hours, depending on the formulation.
Despite their benefits, amphetamines have notable disadvantages. These include the potential for abuse, psychological dependence, and adverse side effects. As Schedule II controlled substances, they are subject to strict prescribing regulations and carry a black-box warning for risk of misuse and serious cardiovascular events, including sudden death in individuals with structural cardiac abnormalities (Goodman & Mattingly, 2023). Common side effects include insomnia, decreased appetite, anxiety, agitation, palpitations, and gastrointestinal disturbances. Patients should be assessed for contraindications such as a history of substance use disorder, cardiovascular disease, hyperthyroidism, and eating disorders. Pregnancy is another consideration, as amphetamines are not recommended due to a lack of controlled studies in pregnant women and potential fetal risks (Stahl et al., 2023).
In comparison to stimulant medications, non-stimulant options such as atomoxetine or alpha-2 agonists (e.g., guanfacine) may offer benefits for individuals with a history of substance use or those who cannot tolerate stimulants. These alternatives have a lower risk of abuse but may have slower onset of action and reduced efficacy in symptom control (Stahl et al., 2023). Additionally, non-pharmacologic approaches like cognitive-behavioral therapy, physical activity, or digital health tools can be effective adjuncts but may not suffice as standalone treatments for moderate to severe ADHD (Pandian et al., 2021; Lindvall et al., 2023).
When prescribing amphetamines, it is critical to consider legal, ethical, and social implications. Legally, clinicians must comply with DEA regulations, which include issuing monthly prescriptions and maintaining accurate documentation due to the controlled status of the drug. Ethically, informed consent is essential. Jessica must understand the potential risks and benefits, including the possibility of side effects, misuse, and alternative treatment options. Socially, stigma associated with psychiatric medication can affect patient self-esteem and willingness to adhere to treatment. Jessica may experience judgment or misunderstanding from coworkers or family, so it is important to provide psychoeducation and encourage open communication to foster support and acceptance.
In summary, amphetamine is a well-supported and effective option for treating ADHD in adults like Jessica. With careful assessment, informed decision-making, and regular follow-up, stimulant therapy can significantly improve her focus, productivity, and quality of life.
References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024, May 15). Treatment of ADHD . Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention.https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/treatment/index.html
Faraone, S. V., Asherson, P., Banaschewski, T., et al. (2021). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Nature Reviews Disease
Primers, 7 (1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.01.022
Goodman, D. W., & Mattingly, G. (2023). Practice Guidelines Development: The APSARD United States guidelines for the diagnosis
and treatment of ADHD in adults. Psychiatric Annals, 53 (10), 449-454–454. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20230911-05 Links to an external site.
Lindvall, M. A., Holmqvist, K. L., Philipson, A., Svedell, L. A., Msghina, M., & Cao, Y. (2023). START – physical exercise and
person-centered cognitive skills training as treatment for adult ADHD. BMC Psychiatry , 23 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05181- 1 Links to an external site.
Pandian, G. S. B., Jain, A., Raza, Q., & Sahu, K. K. (2021). Digital health interventions (DHI) for the treatment of attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children – A comparative review of literature among various treatments and DHI. Psychiatry
Research, 297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113742 Links to an external site.
Rosenthal, L. D., & Burchum, J. R. (2021). Lehne’s pharmacotherapeutics for advanced practice nurses and physician
assistants . Elsevier.
Stahl, S. M., Grady, M. M., & Muntner, N. (2023). Stahl’s essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical
applications . Cambridge University Press.
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Crystal Holmes
Apr 2, 2025 5:52pm | Last reply Apr 5, 2025 4:57pm
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ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that often persists from childhood into adulthood and can significantly impair academic, occupational, and social functioning. According to Cortese et al. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is estimated to affect around 5% of school-age children (aged ≤18 years) and 2.5% of adults worldwide. Some of the signs and symptoms are inattention, hyperactivity, impulsiveness, or combinations. Methylphenidate and Amphetamines are two psychostimulants that treat ADHD. They both work by increasing the availability of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain but differ in their mechanisms and side effect profiles.
Mechanism of Action & Clinical Rationale
Amphetamine is a type of drug that speeds up activity in the brain. It works by raising the levels of certain natural chemicals, mainly dopamine and norepinephrine, and to a lesser extent serotonin which help send messages between brain cells. This boost in brain chemicals can increase alertness, focus, and energy (Martin & Le, 2023). They also inhibit monoamine oxidase at higher doses. This mechanism makes amphetamines effective for both inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive symptoms of ADHD.
Malcolm: Amphetamines may help reduce hyperactivity, impulsiveness, and improve sustained attention in class.
Jessica: As an adult, Jessica may benefit from the longer duration options (e.g., Vyvanse), which can help improve executive functioning, time management, and task completion at work.
Methylphenidate is made from chemicals related to stimulants and works by affecting certain brain messengers. It helps increase the amount of dopamine and norepinephrine two important brain chemicals, by stopping them from being taken back up by nerve cells too quickly. This allows more of these chemicals to stay active between brain cells, which helps improve focus, attention, and alertness (Verghese, Patel, & Abdijadid, 2024). It is slightly less potent than amphetamine at releasing dopamine.
Malcolm: Methylphenidate is often first-line in children and has a more established safety profile in pediatrics.
Jessica: It may be a good option if she has concerns about amphetamine-related side effects or potential for misuse.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Some of the pros & cons of Amphetamine:
Pros:
Often longer-acting formulations (e.g., Vyvanse).
Effective for a wide range of ADHD symptoms.
Less variability in response between patients.
Cons:
Higher potential for side effects like anxiety, insomnia, decreased appetite.
Higher abuse potential, especially in adults.
Some may develop tolerance over time.
Some of the pros & cons of Methylphenidate:
Pros:
Available in many formulations (immediate, sustained, extended release).
Generally, it is better tolerated in children.
Lower risk of cardiovascular side effects compared to amphetamines.
Cons:
May be less effective for some patients.
Shorter duration in some forms may require multiple doses per day.
Some patients experience rebound symptoms as medication wears off.
Side Effects
Amphetamines may cause appetite suppression, frequent insomnia, irritability, and slightly higher cardiovascular and abuse risks compared to Methylphenidate. While Methylphenidate commonly suppresses appetite, it causes less frequent insomnia and lower irritability, cardiovascular risk, and abuse potential than amphetamines.
Legal, Ethical, and Social Considerations
Legal:
Legal: Both medications are Schedule II controlled substances. It’s imperative to follow DEA regulations and monitor potential misuse or diversion.
Ethical: Ensuring accurate diagnosis and avoiding over-prescribing is essential, especially in adults who are shopping around for stimulant access is a concern.
Social: Stimulant use can carry stigma. Patients may worry about being labeled as “drug-seeking,” which can affect their willingness to adhere to treatment or disclose their condition.
References
Cortese, S., Adamo, N., Del Giovane, C., Mohr-Jensen, C., Hayes, A. J., Carucci, S., Atkinson, L. Z., Tessari, L., Banaschewski, T., Coghill, D., Hollis, C., Simonoff, E., Zuddas, A., Barbui, C., Purgato, M., Steinhausen, H.-C., Shokraneh, F., Xia, J., & Cipriani, A. (2018). Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5 (9), 727–738. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30269-4
Martin, D., & Le, J. K. (2023, July 31). Amphetamine. In StatPearls . StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556103/ Links to an external site.
Verghese, C., Patel, P., & Abdijadid, S. (2024, October 29). Methylphenidate. In StatPearls . StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482451/ Links to an external site.
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Adebimpe Adepitan
Apr 2, 2025 5:25pm | Last reply Apr 5, 2025 12:56am
Reply from Adebimpe Adepitan
Pro Argument for Methylphenidate in ADHD Management
The central nervous system stimulant methylphenidate functions by blocking the prefrontal cortex dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake to enhance neurotransmission and improve attention control with executive function (Zetterström et al., 2022). Through this effect, methylphenidate specifically helps patients who have ADHD because it acts directly on the disease-induced neurobiological deficits. Methylphenidate presents reduced risks for dependency alongside cardiac problems compared to amphetamines, which makes it a preferred choice for patients with low cardiovascular vulnerability (Zetterström et al., 2022). Treatments based on individual patient needs and lifestyle requirements can be accomplished through methylphenidate’s availability as immediate-release (IR) and extended-release (ER) formulations.
The alternative treatments, which include alpha-adrenergic agonists together with non-stimulants (such as atomoxetine), exhibit inferior performance for rapid improvement of core ADHD symptoms. Alpha-adrenergic agonists clonidine and guanfacine demonstrate their best effect on norepinephrine signaling pathways while offering suitable management for patients who experience tic disorders or anxiety (Ilipilla & Arnold, 2024). These medications do not increase dopamine signaling directly, which makes them less beneficial for those needing urgent cognitive improvement. The selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor atomoxetine needs multiple weeks for complete therapeutic effectiveness because it delays symptom relief. The immediate benefits of methylphenidate treatment enable its use as the primary selection for treating numerous patients (Aldosary et al., 2021).
The decision process of prescribing methylphenidate requires healthcare providers to consider legal aspects alongside ethical concerns and social implications. The pharmacological status of this substance makes it a Schedule II controlled drug, which demands stringent prescription tracking systems to prevent its unintended misuse and unauthorized distribution (Aldosary et al., 2021). Health providers should balance patient dependency risk and medical need when prescribing medication while providing informed consent and instructing patients about suitable medication use. Social stigmas regarding stimulant medications lead both patients’ parents and school personnel to sometimes avoid their prescribed use because of these negative social perceptions. Addressing these issues through patient-centered care and public awareness initiatives is crucial for optimizing treatment outcomes while minimizing risks (Mwesigwa & Shibao, 2024).
References
Aldosary, F., Norris, S., Tremblay, P., James, J. S., Ritchie, J. C., & Blier, P. (2021). Differential potency of Venlafaxine, Paroxetine, and atomoxetine to inhibit serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake in patients with major depressive disorder. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology , 25 (4), 283-292. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyab086 Links to an external site.
Ilipilla, G., & Arnold, L. E. (2024). The role of adrenergic neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitors in the ADHD armamentarium. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy , 25 (8), 945-956. https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2024.2369197 Links to an external site.
Mwesigwa, N., & Shibao, C. A. (2024). Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition, an emergent treatment for neurogenic orthostatic hypotension. Hypertension , 81 (7), 1460-1466. https://doi.org/10.1161/hypertensionaha.124.22069 Links to an external site.
Zetterström, T. S., Quansah, E., & Grootveld, M. (2022). Effects of methylphenidate on the dopamine transporter and beyond. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences , 127-157. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2022_333 Links to an external site.
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Armine Hayrapetyan
Apr 2, 2025 4:33pm | Last reply Apr 5, 2025 8:08pm
Reply from Armine Hayrapetyan
Patient 1 (Malcom 9-year old)
Following Malcom’s diagnosis, ADHD, a non-stimulant medication like Atomoxetine (Strattera) can be considered. It is a medication that is used when stimulant medication fails to be effective or result to intolerable side effects.
Mechanism of Action
The non-stimulant medication (Atomoxetine) works through increasing norepinephrine levels, which is a neurotransmitter in the brain that assists in controlling attention, behavior, and emotions (Docherty & Alsufyani, 2021). This may be appropriate for the patient as it can help him have concentrate better, be less hyperactive and be less impulsive.
Advantages & Disadvantages of the Non-Stimulant (Atomoxetine)
The advantages include; it can be take twice or once in a day that may be convenient for the family and it is not a controlled substance; hence, it has no potential of physical dependence or abuse.
The disadvantage is that it may take more weeks to see full effects and it can result to side effects like dizziness, stomach upset, decreased appetite and nausea.
Advantages and Disadvantages of other Medication Options- Methylphenidate
Methylphenidate is a stimulant medication that is considered as first-in-line ADHD treatments. The advantage is that it works more effectively and quicker compared to non-stimulants. It improves focus and attention, reduce impulsivity and enhance behavior (Ryst & Childress, 2023). The disadvantage is that they have a higher potential for physical dependence
and abuse and can result to side effects like mood swings, decreased appetite and sleep problems.
Side Effects and Considerations
The non-stimulant, Atomoxetine, can result to side effects like dizziness, stomach upset, decreased appetite and nausea. In addition, it can result to even serious side effects like liver damage; hence, it requires regular monitoring.
Legal, ethical and social implications Legal: Atomoxetine prescription should be according to the state and local laws and regulation, including minor rights as well as informed consent.
Ethical: The decision of prescribing medication needs to be made in the best interest of the patient, following the potential risks and benefits.
Social: There may be stigma linked to taking mental health condition medication that may affect Malcom’s social interactions and self-esteem. It is crucial to address this issue and offer support when needed.
Patient 2, Jessica, 32-year-old female
Mechanism of Action: Alpha adrenergic agonist
Alpha adrenergic agonist work thorough stimulation of the brain’s alpha-adrenergic receptors. This stimulation leads to an increase of norepinephrine concentration in the synaptic cleft that in turn improves signals transmission in the brain; hence, enhancing attention as well as reducing hyperactivity and impulsivity (Ilipilla & Arnold, 2024).
Disadvantages of Alpha Adrenergic Agonist
Alpha adrenergic agonist such as guanfacine and clonidine have both advantages and disadvantages. They offer advantages like lowering blood pressure, improve focus, and reduce impulsivity and hyperactivity. The disadvantages include; they can lead to side effects like constipation, drowsiness, and dry mouth; they have shorter duration of action; hence, need multiple doses throughout the day, and many not be as effective as stimulant medications in relation to treating ADHD symptoms (Ilipilla & Arnold, 2024).
Advantages and Disadvantages of other ADHD medications (Amphetamines)
The advantages of the amphetamines are that they have longer duration of action, needing fewer doses and they are generally more effective in relation to treating ADHD symptoms. The disadvantages are that they can cause side effects like nervousness, fever, insomnia, emotional lability and loss of appetite (Docherty & Alsufyani, 2021).
Side effects of Alpha Adrenergic Agonist
The possible side effects constitute, drowsiness, constipation, dry mouth, slower heart rate, and lower blood pressure.
Legal, Ethical and Social Implications
Legal: Misuse of Alpha Adrenergic Agonist can result to legal consequences.
Ethical: it is essential to use the medication only as prescribed.
Social: Misuse of the medications can result to social stigma. For instance, an individual can get labelled as “drug user”.
References
Docherty, J. R., & Alsufyani, H. A. (2021). Pharmacology of drugs used as stimulants. The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 61(S2). https://doi.org/10.1002/jcph.1918 Links to an external site.
Ilipilla, G., & Arnold, L. E. (2024). The role of adrenergic neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitors in the ADHD armamentarium. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 25(8), 945- 956. https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2024.2369197 Links to an external site.
Ryst, E., & Childress, A. (2023). An updated safety review of the current drugs for managing ADHD in children. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety, 22(11), 1025-1040. https://doi.org/10.1080/14740338.2023.2271392 Links to an external site.
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Ibiene Mary Jumbo
Apr 2, 2025 4:30pm
Reply from Ibiene Mary Jumbo
Mechanism of Action and Appropriateness for the Patient
Amphetamine is a central nervous system stimulant that increases dopamine and norepinephrine levels by inhibiting reuptake and promoting neurotransmitter release (Faraone, 2018). This mechanism improves attention, focus, and impulse control, making it highly effective for treating ADHD. Given the patient’s symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity, this medication provides immediate symptom relief and enhances executive functioning.
Advantages:
Multiple formulations (short-acting and long-acting) allow for flexible dosing.
Proven efficacy in improving ADHD symptoms and executive function (Fredriksen et al., 2013).
Rapid onset of action, beneficial for individuals needing immediate symptom control.
Disadvantages:
Potential for misuse and dependency, particularly in adolescents and young adults (Weyandt et al., 2016).
Can cause insomnia, decreased appetite, and cardiovascular concerns in some patients (Weyandt et al., 2016).
Requires close monitoring due to risk of increased blood pressure and heart rate (Weyandt et al., 2016).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Alternative Medication Class
Alternative medications, such as non-stimulants (e.g., atomoxetine) or alpha-adrenergic agonists (e.g., guanfacine), offer non-addictive options for ADHD treatment. However, they also come with limitations (Newcorn et al., 2022).
Advantages of Non-Stimulants and Alpha-Agonists:
Lower abuse potential compared to stimulants.
Can be beneficial for patients with comorbid anxiety or tic disorders.
Disadvantages of Non-Stimulants and Alpha-Agonists:
Delayed onset of action (weeks to months to achieve full efficacy) (Newcorn et al., 2022).
Less effective for improving executive function compared to stimulants (Newcorn et al., 2022).
Common side effects include sedation, dizziness, and hypotension (Newcorn et al., 2022).
Side Effects and Considerations
Stimulants: Potential for cardiovascular issues, appetite suppression, and insomnia.
Non-Stimulants: May cause mood changes, fatigue, and gastrointestinal issues (Newcorn et al., 2022).
Alpha-Agonists: Can lead to hypotension, sedation, and dizziness.
Legal, Ethical, and Social Considerations
Legal: Controlled substance regulations require careful prescribing and monitoring to prevent misuse (Drug Enforcement Administration, 2019).
Ethical: Balancing the benefits of treatment with the potential risks of stimulant dependency requires informed consent and patient education (Wilens et al., 2021).
Social: The stigma surrounding stimulant medications may affect adherence and perception of treatment among patients and families.
Conclusion
The assigned medication [Amphetamine/Methylphenidate/Alpha-Agonist/Non-Stimulant] provides substantial benefits in treating ADHD, though it requires careful monitoring. Alternative medications have their place in treatment but may be less effective for immediate symptom control. An individualized approach is necessary to optimize outcomes based on the patient’s medical history, risk factors, and treatment goals.
References
Drug Enforcement Administration. (2019). Stimulants | DEA . Dea.gov. https://www.dea.gov/taxonomy/term/346
Faraone, S. V. (2018). The pharmacology of amphetamine and methylphenidate: Relevance to the neurobiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other psychiatric comorbidities. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 87 , 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.001
Fredriksen, M., Halmøy, A., Faraone, S. V., & Haavik, J. (2013). Long-term efficacy and safety of treatment with stimulants and atomoxetine in adult ADHD: A review of controlled and naturalistic studies. European Neuropsychopharmacology , 23 (6), 508–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.07.016
Newcorn, J. H., Krone, B., & Dittmann, R. W. (2022). Nonstimulant Treatments for ADHD. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America , 31 (3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2022.03.005
Weyandt, L. L., Oster, D. R., Marraccini, M. E., Gudmundsdottir, B. G., Munro, B. A., Rathkey, E. S., & McCallum, A. (2016). Prescription stimulant medication misuse: Where are we and where do we go from here? Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology , 24 (5), 400–414. https://doi.org/10.1037/pha0000093
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Lutaline Fosah
Apr 2, 2025 2:38pm | Last reply Apr 4, 2025 10:32am
Reply from Lutaline Fosah
Initial Discussion
Amphetamine and Methylphenidate in ADHD Treatment
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Pharmacological treatment plays a crucial role in managing ADHD symptoms, mainly through stimulant medications like amphetamine and methylphenidate. This discussion will evaluate these two medication classes, their mechanisms of action, benefits, drawbacks, and implications in the cases of Malcolm, a 9-year-old child, and Jessica, a 32-year-old adult.
Mechanism of Action and Appropriateness for Patients
Amphetamines, including dextroamphetamine and lisdexamfetamine, function by increasing dopamine and norepinephrine levels in the brain. They achieve this by stimulating the release of these neurotransmitters and inhibiting their reuptake, enhancing attention and impulse control (Goldin, 2023). Given Malcolm’s hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inability to focus, amphetamines could be a practical choice in regulating his behavior and improving his executive function. Similarly, Jessica’s workplace difficulties due to distractibility and impulsivity indicate that amphetamines may enhance her ability to complete assigned tasks and maintain professional relationships.
Methylphenidate also increases dopamine and norepinephrine levels but does so primarily by blocking their reuptake rather than stimulating their release (Stahl, 2021). This mechanism results in improved attention and reduced impulsivity, making it appropriate for both Malcolm and Jessica. While both medications are stimulants, methylphenidate is often preferred in pediatric cases due to its slightly lower risk of increased heart rate and blood pressure (Pitzianti et al., 2020).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Amphetamine and Methylphenidate
Amphetamines offer the advantage of various administration options, including immediate-release (IR), extended-release (ER), and prodrug formulations like lisdexamfetamine, which provides a smoother onset and longer duration (Abbas et al., 2024). This flexibility allows for tailored dosing schedules. However, amphetamines have a higher potential for misuse and dependence, which is particularly concerning for adults like Jessica who may be at risk of substance use disorders.
Methylphenidate, in contrast, has a slightly lower abuse potential and offers similar immediate-release and extended-release formulations. Moreover, it has a more predictable effect duration, which is useful for younger children like Malcolm, ensuring symptom control during school hours without excessive stimulation in the evenings (Pitzianti et al., 2020). Nevertheless, methylphenidate has a shorter half-life compared to some amphetamine formulations, necessitating multiple daily doses in some cases.
Comparison with Other Medication Options
Alpha-adrenergic agonists, such as guanfacine and clonidine, provide an alternative non-stimulant treatment. They work by targeting noradrenergic receptors in the prefrontal cortex, reducing hyperactivity and impulsivity (Su et al., 2023). While they are beneficial for patients who cannot tolerate stimulants, they are less effective for attention-related symptoms and may cause sedation.
Non-stimulant medications like atomoxetine, a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, offer another alternative. They lack the abuse potential of stimulants and provide 24-hour symptom control, making them suitable for adults with ADHD and comorbid anxiety. However, their delayed onset of action (several weeks) and side effects such as nausea and fatigue limit their immediate efficacy (Stahl, 2021).
Side Effects and Considerations
Both amphetamine and methylphenidate can cause insomnia, decreased appetite, increased heart rate, and mood swings. In children like Malcolm, appetite suppression can be particularly concerning for growth and development. In adults like Jessica, cardiovascular side effects should be monitored due to potential hypertension risks. Additionally, both medications may exacerbate anxiety symptoms, requiring careful titration and monitoring (Goldin, 2023).
Legal, Ethical, and Social Implications
Legally, stimulant medications are classified as Schedule II controlled substances due to their potential for abuse and dependence. This classification requires strict prescribing guidelines, including limited refill options and regular patient evaluations. Healthcare providers must ensure appropriate documentation and risk assessment before prescribing these medications (Abbas et al., 2024).
Ethically, prescribing stimulants to children like Malcolm involves considerations of informed consent and parental responsibility. Parents must be educated on medication risks and benefits, and healthcare providers must ensure that pharmacological interventions align with behavioral therapies to maximize outcomes.
Socially, ADHD medications can carry stigma, particularly for adults like Jessica, who may face workplace bias or misconceptions regarding stimulant use. Additionally, disparities in access to ADHD medication raise concerns, as individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may have limited healthcare access, leading to underdiagnosis and undertreatment.
Conclusion
Both amphetamine and methylphenidate offer effective symptom control for ADHD, though each has unique advantages and drawbacks. Amphetamines provide longer-lasting effects but pose a higher risk of abuse, whereas methylphenidate offers more controlled symptom management with a lower side effect burden. While non-stimulant options exist, they may not provide immediate symptom relief. In prescribing these medications, legal, ethical, and social factors must be carefully considered to ensure appropriate and equitable ADHD treatment.
References
Abbas, K., Barnhardt, E. W., Nash, P. L., Streng, M., & Coury, D. L. (2024). A review of amphetamine extended release once-daily options for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics , 24(4), 421–432. https://doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2024.2321921 Links to an external site.
Goldin, D. S. (2023). Fast facts for psychopharmacology for nurse practitioners . Springer Publishing.
Pitzianti, M. B., Spiridigliozzi, S., Bartolucci, E., Esposito, S., & Pasini, A. (2020). New insights on the effects of methylphenidate in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry , 11, 531092. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.531092 Links to an external site.
Stahl, S. M. (2021). Stahl’s essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Su, M., Wang, J., Xiang, G., Do, H. N., Levitz, J., Miao, Y., & Huang, X. (2023). Structural basis of agonist specificity of α1A-adrenergic receptor. Nature Communications , 14(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40524-2 Links to an external site.
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Emmanuel C Ezeala
Apr 2, 2025 1:45pm | Last reply Apr 6, 2025 11:42am
Reply from Emmanuel C Ezeala
Main Post.
Mechanism of Action of Methylphenidate
Methylphenidate is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that primarily works by inhibiting the brain’s reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine. By blocking the dopamine transporter (DAT) and the norepinephrine transporter (NET), methylphenidate increases the availability of these neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft, leading to enhanced neurotransmission (Arnsten & Rubia, 2012). This action helps improve attention, impulse control, and hyperactivity symptoms in individuals with ADHD (Biederman et al., 2019).
Appropriateness of Methylphenidate for Malcolm
Methylphenidate is appropriate for Malcolm because it addresses the core symptoms of ADHD and combined presentation, including impulsiveness, hyperactivity, and inattentiveness. Clinical trials have demonstrated that methylphenidate effectively reduces ADHD symptoms in children, leading to improved behavioral regulation, academic performance, and social interactions (Storebø et al., 2018). Given Malcolm’s struggles with impulsivity, distractibility, and difficulty completing tasks, this medication is expected to provide meaningful symptom relief.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Methylphenidate
Advantages:
Administration: Available in multiple formulations, including immediate-release (IR), sustained-release (SR), and extended-release (ER), allowing for flexibility in dosing (Cortese et al., 2020).
Duration: ER formulations provide symptom relief throughout the school day with a single morning dose, reducing the need for midday dosing.
Efficacy: Demonstrates significant improvement in ADHD symptoms compared to placebo, with effects noticeable within 30–60 minutes of administration (Biederman et al., 2019).
Disadvantages:
Side Effects: Common side effects include appetite suppression, sleep disturbances, irritability, and gastrointestinal discomfort (Storebø et al., 2018).
Duration Considerations: IR formulations require multiple daily doses, possibly leading to compliance issues.
Potential for Misuse: As a Schedule II controlled substance, there is a risk of misuse or diversion (Cortese et al., 2020).
Comparison to Other Medication Options
Alternative medications for ADHD include amphetamines (e.g., lisdexamfetamine), non-stimulants (e.g., atomoxetine, guanfacine, clonidine), and behavioral interventions.
Amphetamines : Similar efficacy to methylphenidate but may have a higher risk of side effects such as increased heart rate and blood pressure.
Atomoxetine (Strattera) : A non-stimulant selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, suitable for patients with comorbid anxiety or risk of substance misuse but with a delayed onset of action (2–4 weeks).
Guanfacine/Clonidine : Alpha-2 adrenergic agonists are helpful for hyperactivity and impulsive but can cause sedation and hypotension.
Side Effects and Considerations
Malcolm should be monitored for potential side effects, including reduced appetite, weight loss, sleep disturbances, and mood changes. Parents should be educated on proper administration to minimize rebound effects and ensure adherence. Additionally, periodic growth and cardiovascular function assessment is recommended (Cortese et al., 2020).
Legal, Ethical, and Social Considerations
Legal: As a controlled substance, methylphenidate requires careful prescribing and monitoring to prevent misuse and ensure compliance with regulations. Providers must educate parents on proper storage and adherence (Biederman et al., 2019).
Ethical: The decision to medicate a child for ADHD involves balancing benefits with potential risks, ensuring informed consent from caregivers, and considering alternative interventions.
Social: Stimulant medications may carry stigma, leading to concerns about labeling and self-esteem in children diagnosed with ADHD. Schools and caregivers should foster an understanding and supportive environment.
Mechanism of Action of Amphetamine
Amphetamines function by increasing the levels of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain. They do this primarily by promoting the release of these neurotransmitters from presynaptic neurons and inhibiting their reuptake, which enhances neurotransmitter availability in the synaptic cleft. This mechanism improves attention, impulse control, and executive functioning, which are often impaired in individuals with ADHD (Volkow et al., 2021).
Appropriateness of Amphetamine for Jessica
Given Jessica’s difficulties with task completion, distractibility, and excessive talking, amphetamine is an appropriate choice as it enhances focus and reduces impulsiveness. Research shows that stimulant medications like amphetamine significantly improve ADHD symptoms in adults, allowing for better job performance and social interactions (Biederman et al., 2019).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Stimulant Medications
Advantages:
High Efficacy: Stimulants are among the most effective treatments for ADHD, with symptom improvement in approximately 70–80% of patients (Cortese, 2020).
Multiple Formulations: Available in immediate-release (short-acting) and extended-release (long-acting) forms, allowing flexibility based on patient needs.
Rapid Onset: Symptom relief can begin 30–60 minutes after administration.
Disadvantages:
Potential for Abuse and Dependence: Amphetamines are Schedule II controlled substances, meaning they have a high potential for misuse.
Side Effects: Common side effects include insomnia, appetite suppression, increased heart rate, and potential anxiety.
Shorter Duration (Immediate-Release Forms): Requires multiple daily dosing, which may lead to fluctuating symptom control.
Comparison to Non-Stimulant Medications
Non-stimulant medications, such as atomoxetine (a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor), provide an alternative with lower abuse potential. However, they often take several weeks to achieve full therapeutic effects and may be less effective than stimulants in some patients (Spencer et al., 2020). Non-stimulants may be preferable for patients with substance use concerns or significant side effects from stimulants.
Potential Side Effects and Considerations
Consideration: Due to the potential for misuse, strict prescribing regulations apply to amphetamines, requiring careful monitoring and adherence to state and federal laws. Example: A prescriber must use Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs (PDMPs) to track controlled substance prescriptions.
Ethical Consideration: Physicians must balance the benefits of stimulant therapy with the risk of misuse, ensuring the medication is prescribed for legitimate medical purposes. Example: Assessing a patient’s history of substance abuse before prescribing amphetamines.
Social Consideration: ADHD stigma may affect patients’ willingness to seek treatment or disclose their condition at work. Example: Jessica may face workplace bias, leading her to feel hesitant about disclosing her ADHD diagnosis to her employer.
References
Arnsten, A. F., & Rubia, K. (2012). Neurobiological circuits regulating attention, cognitive control, and impulsivity: Implications for ADHD. Neuropsychopharmacology , 38 (1), 196-206. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2012.104
Biederman, J., Spencer, T. J., & Faraone, S. V. (2019). Evidence-based pharmacologic management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 22 (3), 168-180.
Biederman, J., Spencer, T. J., Monuteaux, M. C., & Faraone, S. V. (2019). A naturalistic study of once-daily mixed amphetamine salts and osmotic-release oral system methylphenidate in children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders , 23 (5), 518-526. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054717690818
Cortese, S. (2020). Pharmacologic treatment of attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder. The New England Journal of Medicine, 383 (11), 1050-1056.
Cortese, S., Adamo, N., Del Giovane, C., Mohr-Jensen, C., Hayes, A. J., Carucci, S., & Cipriani, A. (2020). Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry , 7 (9), 741-750. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30269-4
Spencer, T. J., Brown, A., Seidman, L. J., & Biederman, J. (2020). Non-stimulant treatments for adult ADHD. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 81 (5), 19m13153.Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Tomasi, D., & Baler, R. D. (2021). Unraveling the complexity of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The role of dopamine and other neurotransmitters. Biological Psychiatry, 89 (5), 497-508.
Storebø, O. J., Ramstad, E., Krogh, H. B., Nilausen, T. D., Skoog, M., Rosendal, S., … & Simonsen, E. (2018). Methylphenidate for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , 2018 (8). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009885.pub2
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Tomasi, D., & Baler, R. D. (2021). Unraveling the complexity of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The role of dopamine and other neurotransmitters. Biological Psychiatry, 89 (5), 497-508.
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Honorine Berewoudougou
Apr 2, 2025 2:04am | Last reply Apr 5, 2025 8:47pm
Reply from Honorine Berewoudougou
MAIN POST
Most of the time, selecting medications to treat ADHD and other psychological disorders is usually between stimulants such as Amphetamine and Methylphenidate. According to Liu et al., 2008, Current medications for the management of ADHD are primarily aimed at regulating brain dopamine and/or norepinephrine levels. The most effective and frequently prescribed drug for ADHD, methylphenidate, is a psychostimulant that inhibits reuptake and stimulates the release of dopamine in the central nervous system, thereby increasing the temporal and spatial presence of dopamine at post-synaptic receptors.
Patients 1 and 2
In these cases, the choice of the medication is critical due to the patient’s age. The two classes of medications to consider are the stimulants as well as the alternative, the Adrenergic Agonists, and non-stimulants. These two classes of medication come with distinct advantages and potential drawbacks. “Neurotransmitter transporters at the plasma membrane contribute to the clearance and recycling of neurotransmitters and profoundly impact the extent of receptor activation during neuronal signaling. These carriers are also the primary targets for psychostimulant drugs of abuse, antidepressant medications, and drugs such as methylphenidate and amphetamines, which are used to treat attention deficit disorders in children. In recent studies, we have observed that once amphetamine-like drugs enter dopamine neurons, they activate multiple intracellular signaling pathways to trigger changes in the cellular trafficking of the dopamine transporter and other neuronal membrane proteins. Within the cell, amphetamines activate the small GTPases Rho and Rac1, triggering the dopamine transporter (DAT) endocytosis by a RhoA- and dynamin-dependent pathway” (Amara, 2013).
These two patients will benefit from the stimulant because stimulants are proven to be effective for ADHD or narcolepsy because they are great at managing inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity.
The advantage of the stimulants is their rapid effect on helping a patient with their symptoms. There are numerous types of research done that support the efficacity of stimulants regarding the management of ADHD and narcolepsy. According to Jordan et al., 2016, non-stimulant medications are not as clinically efficacious as methylphenidate for ADHD symptoms.
Dexedrine, Adderall, and Vyvanse are the three most commonly prescribed amphetamine formulations for ADHD worldwide. This makes stimulants the first line of treatment for ADHD. For Boles et al., 2001, There have been substantial increases in the use of methylphenidate and other psychotropic drugs in the treatment of ADHD. Most children with ADHD receive psychostimulants, with methylphenidate being the most frequently prescribed. Numerous studies have documented the safety, efficacy, and tolerability of these agents in children with ADHD. Over 70% of patients are successfully treated with stimulants in the short term.
The disadvantages of stimulants are the side effects, tolerability, dependence, and misuse. The side effects are loss of appetite, insomnia, headache, abdominal pain, weight loss, vomiting, tachycardia, dry mouth, nausea, and dizziness. Long-term use of the medication can lead to problems with tolerance and dependence. Also, stimulants can be misused easily and diverted, which will create serious health problems or conditions.
“This medication has a high potential for abuse and misuse, which can lead to the development of substance use disorder, including addiction; misuse and abuse of CNS stimulants can result in overdose and death, and this Risk is increased with higher doses or unapproved methods of administration, such as snorting or injection. Before prescribing this medication, assess each patient’s Risk for abuse, misuse, and addiction; educate patients and their families about risks, proper storage of the drug, and proper disposal of any unused drug. Throughout treatment, reassess each patient’s Risk of abuse, misuse, and addiction and frequently monitor for signs and symptoms of abuse, misuse, and addiction. Also, in women exposed during pregnancy, healthcare providers are encouraged to register patients by calling the National Pregnancy Registry for Psychostimulants at 1-866-961-2388 or visiting online at https://womensmentalhealth.org/clinical-and-research-programs/pregnancyregistry/othermedications/ Links to an external site. ” (Medscape).
On the other hand, Alpha Adrenergic Agonist nonstimulants work differently. According to Liu et al., 2008, a non-stimulant drug has also been widely employed in the treatment of ADHD. The reduction of ADHD symptoms by stimulants is probably associated with norepinephrine and dopamine levels in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and their effects on attention, arousal, and cognition. These processes may be mediated by activating the norepinephrine α-2 and/or dopamine D1 receptors. They are not addictive or abused like stimulants and generally have a lower side effect and more extended management, which makes them a potential option for children and adolescents who are considered as advantages. According to Boles et al., 2001, Although stimulants are the most established treatment for ADHD, up to 30% of patients either do not respond sufficiently to stimulants or do not tolerate them. Non-stimulant medications, such as antidepressants, alpha-adrenergic agonists, and neuroleptics, have been tried in cases where psychostimulants were ineffective, not tolerated by patients, or unacceptable to parents.
Unfortunately, they are less effective in the treatment of ADHD than stimulants and may take longer to see a therapeutic response or effects, which is a disadvantage. ADHD is challenging to treat as regard of selecting the perfect class of medication due to the other psychiatric disorders that accompanied ADHD. The side effects are Drowsiness, fatigue, dry mouth, and constipation. According to Medscape, avoid abrupt withdrawal (it can result in anxiety, nervousness, and rebound hypertension). It may cause hypotension, orthostasis, bradycardia, and syncope; use with caution in a history of cerebrovascular disease, recent MI, severe coronary insufficiency, or syncope. Chronic renal/hepatic failure May cause sedation, especially at the start; avoid operating heavy machinery. Skin rash with exfoliation reported. Avoid concomitant use with other CNS depressants as they may potentiate CNS effects. The Risk of cardiovascular effects may increase when administered concurrently with antihypertensive medications or drugs that affect heart rate.
Legal
Prescription and dispensing of controlled substances as stimulants are significantly and carefully regulated. Misuse and diversion of the stimulant can pose legal consequences.
Ethical
The ethical consideration regarding the stimulant is to proceed with carefulness due to the high potential of abuse and misuse, which in turn can create more health issues than healing the patient. Nurse practitioners must ensure that the prescribed medication is used correctly based on the patient’s diagnosis and emphasize educating the patient on the risks and benefits.
Social
The social part of ADHD medication use is the increasing situation of mental health patients using stimulants and the possible Risk of misuse or diversion within the communities.
Both patients will benefit from the stimulants as the first choice, but they require monitoring and a lot of education. In case of tolerability issues, misuse, or dependence, the patients can be switched to stimulants, Alpha Adrenergic Agonist. Both medications can be given orally, and some medications within those two classes can be extended-release.
Amara, S. G. (2013). A new take on uptake: neurotransmitter transporters and the cellular mechanisms of amphetamine action. Proceedings of the Physiological Society , 219P–220P.
Boles, M., Lynch, F. L., & DeBar, L. L. (2001). Variations in pharmacotherapy for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in managed care. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology , 11 (1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1089/104454601750143429
https://reference.medscape.com/drug/adderall-mydayis-amphetamine-dextroamphetamine-342997#3
Jordan, C., Lemay, C., Dwoskin, L., & Kantak, K. (2016). Adolescent d-amphetamine treatment in a rodent model of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: impact on cocaine abuse vulnerability in adulthood. Psychopharmacology , 233 (23/24), 3891–3903. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-016-4419-2
Liu, L.-L., Yang, J., Lei, G.-F., Wang, G.-J., Wang, Y.-W., & Sun, R.-P. (2008). Atomoxetine Increases Histamine Release and Improves Learning Deficits in an Animal Model of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology , 102 (6), 527–532.
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Moreen Bibi
Apr 1, 2025 11:12pm | Last reply Apr 3, 2025 10:02pm
Reply from Moreen Bibi
Main Post ADHD Medication Debate Discussion
Medicine Classes That Have Been Selected:
Pro: Methylphenidate
Con: Alpha-adrenergic agonist
The mechanism of action and the patients’ appropriateness
Methylphenidate (Pro) Methylphenidate is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that inhibits the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine, thereby increasing their levels in the brain. This results in improved attention, impulse control, and reduced hyperactivity. Due to its rapid onset and efficacy in treating the primary symptoms of ADHD, such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention, methylphenidate is suitable for both Malcolm and Jessica (Storebø et al., 2018).
Alpha Adrenergic Agonist (Con) The prefrontal cortex is stimulated by alpha-2 receptors by alpha adrenergic agonists, such as clonidine or guanfacine, resulting in reduced norepinephrine release and the modulation of attention and impulse control (Arnsten, 2017). These medications are frequently prescribed for ADHD patients who have coexisting conditions, such as anxiety or sleep disturbances. However, their efficacy in alleviating central ADHD symptoms is generally inferior to that of stimulants.
Benefits and Drawbacks
Methylphenidate (Pro)
Benefits:
Fast-acting, with effects typically manifesting within 30-60 minutes.
Formulations are available in both immediate-release and extended-release forms.
Demonstrated effectiveness in the reduction of ADHD symptoms in both infants and adults.
It can be customized to meet the specific requirements of each individual through dosage adjustments.
List of disadvantages:
Due to its stimulant properties, there is a risk of misuse or dependence.
Appetite suppression, sleep disturbances, and an elevated heart rate may result.
Unsuitable for patients with a history of substance addiction or significant cardiovascular conditions.
Alpha Adrenergic Agonist (Con)
Benefits:
Non-stimulant, which minimizes the likelihood of dependence or misconduct.
It can be advantageous for patients with ADHD who suffer from anxiety or sleep disorders.
Significant appetite suppression is less probable.
List of disadvantages:
Fatigue and sedation are frequent adverse effects.
In comparison to stimulants, the onset of action is delayed.
Less effective in the treatment of core ADHD symptoms, including hyperactivity and inattention.
Comparison of Alternative Medication Options
Amphetamines: A stimulant class that is similar to methylphenidate, but may be associated with a greater risk of dependence and cardiovascular adverse effects.
Non-stimulants, such as Atomoxetine, are beneficial for patients who have contraindications to stimulants. However, they have a delayed onset (weeks) and the potential for mood-related adverse effects.
Adverse Effects and Factors to Consider
Methylphenidate: Potential for misuse, weight loss, insomnia, and increased heart rate.
Alpha Adrenergic Agonists: Fatigue, drowsiness, and potential withdrawal symptoms may occur upon discontinuation.
Social, Ethical, and Legal Consequences
Legal Consideration: Methylphenidate is classified as a Schedule II controlled substance, necessitating meticulous prescribing and monitoring to prevent diversion and abuse (Drug Enforcement Administration, 2021).
Ethical Consideration: When prescribing stimulant medications, prescribers must ensure informed consent and balance the risk of dependency with effective symptom management.
Social Consideration: Stimulants such as methylphenidate may be associated with a stigma, which could potentially impact their self-perception and workplace interactions, particularly for adults like Jessica.
In conclusion,
Methylphenidate is a highly effective first-line treatment for ADHD, particularly for patients who require immediate symptom control. Alpha adrenergic agonists may not be as effective in managing central ADHD symptoms, despite the fact that they offer an alternative for individuals with stimulant intolerance or sleep disturbances. Methylphenidate is likely the preferable option to mitigate risks, given the significant functional impairments in both Malcolm and Jessica. However, meticulous monitoring is required.
References
Arnsten, A. F. T. (2017). The neurobiology of ADHD: Catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical function. Molecular Psychiatry, 22 (1), 5-15.
Drug Enforcement Administration. (2021). Controlled substances schedules. Retrieved from https://www.dea.gov/drug-information/drug-scheduling
Storebø, O. J., Krogh, H. B., Ramstad, E., Moreira-Maia, C. R., Holmskov, M., Skoog, M., … & Gluud, C. (2018). Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents–assessment of adverse events in non-randomised studies. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2018 (5).
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Courtney Ekhator
Apr 1, 2025 10:33pm | Last reply Apr 3, 2025 7:06pm
Reply from Courtney Ekhator
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects both children and adults, impacting daily functioning, academic achievement, and interpersonal relationships. Pharmacologic treatment remains a key component of symptom management. This post explores the pros and cons of two medication classes—amphetamines and alpha adrenergic agonists—by evaluating their use in two distinct patient profiles: a school-aged child, Malcolm, and an adult, Jessica.
1. Mechanism of Action and Clinical Use
Amphetamines Amphetamines function by boosting the levels of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain through increased release and reuptake inhibition. This action improves attention, focus, and behavioral control, making them highly effective for both children and adults diagnosed with ADHD (Stahl, 2021). For Malcolm, who displays hyperactivity and impulsivity, and Jessica, who struggles with distractibility and workplace challenges, amphetamines offer targeted symptom relief.
Alpha Adrenergic Agonists Agents like guanfacine and clonidine activate alpha-2A adrenergic receptors in the prefrontal cortex, which helps regulate emotional and behavioral responses by modulating norepinephrine signaling (Stahl, 2021). These medications are typically more effective for hyperactivity and sleep-related disturbances, making them a viable option for children like Malcolm who have difficulty with aggression or sleep, though they are not commonly used in adults like Jessica.
2. Benefits and Limitations
Amphetamines – Strengths
Available in both short-acting and extended-release formulations for flexible dosing.
Rapid onset and strong evidence base supporting efficacy in both pediatric and adult ADHD.
Once-daily dosing with extended-release forms enhances convenience and compliance (Goldin, 2023).
Amphetamines – Drawbacks
May cause appetite loss, trouble sleeping, or anxiety.
Carry a higher risk of misuse or diversion, especially in older patients.
Can raise heart rate and blood pressure, requiring cardiovascular monitoring.
Alpha Adrenergic Agonists – Strengths
Non-stimulant class with low abuse potential.
Useful for managing symptoms like impulsivity, aggression, and sleep problems.
Often used when stimulants are contraindicated or poorly tolerated.
Alpha Adrenergic Agonists – Drawbacks
Less effective for attention-related symptoms, especially in adults.
Slower onset and more limited effect on overall cognitive performance.
Side effects may include sedation, low blood pressure, and fatigue (Stahl, 2021).
3. Comparison Between Classes
Amphetamines provide a broader range of symptom relief and are often considered the first-line treatment for both children and adults with ADHD (American Academy of Pediatrics [AAP], 2019). In contrast, alpha adrenergic agonists are more specialized and are typically reserved for individuals who do not tolerate stimulants well, particularly children with behavioral outbursts or sleep disturbances. For Jessica, the effectiveness of amphetamines in reducing distractibility and improving executive function is likely to outweigh the benefits of alpha agonists.
4. Side Effects and Clinical Monitoring
Amphetamines Common adverse effects include reduced appetite, difficulty sleeping, and mood changes. There are also potential cardiovascular concerns that require monitoring. Additionally, the potential for substance misuse necessitates caution, especially in adults (CHADD, 2023).
Alpha Adrenergic Agonists Patients may experience drowsiness, dizziness, and low blood pressure. Abrupt discontinuation can lead to rebound hypertension, making careful dose tapering necessary (Goldin, 2023).
5. Legal, Ethical, and Social Factors
Legal Consideration (Amphetamines): Due to their classification as Schedule II controlled substances, strict prescribing laws apply. Clinicians must document treatment rationale and monitor for misuse.
Ethical Consideration (Alpha Agonists): Providers should consider if choosing a less effective medication solely to avoid stimulant risks might compromise treatment outcomes, especially in adults who require improved concentration.
Social Consideration (Amphetamines): Adults like Jessica may encounter social stigma or workplace concerns surrounding stimulant use, which could impact adherence. Transparent discussion and education are essential to mitigate misunderstanding.
Conclusion Amphetamines remain the gold standard for ADHD due to their strong efficacy profile and rapid onset of action. They are well-suited for both Jessica and Malcolm when benefits outweigh risks. Alpha adrenergic agonists may be preferred for Malcolm if stimulant side effects or comorbid issues like sleep disturbances arise. As always, treatment must be personalized, balancing symptom control, tolerability, patient preferences, and broader psychosocial factors.
References
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2019). Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents . Pediatrics, 144 (4), e20192528. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-2528 Links to an external site.
CHADD’s National Resource Center on ADHD. (2023). ADHD medications approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Stimulant medications . https://d393uh8gb46l22.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ADHD-Medications-Approved-by-FDA-2.23.pdf Links to an external site.
Goldin, D. S. (2023). Fast facts for psychopharmacology for nurse practitioners . Springer Publishing.
Stahl, S. M. (2021). Stahl’s essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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Ingrid Marianne Gamboa
Apr 1, 2025 10:09pm | Last reply Apr 4, 2025 11:45am
Reply from Ingrid Marianne Gamboa
Discussion week 6
Patient 1
Medication; Methylphenidate
Methylphenidate stimulates the central nervous system, inhibiting the brain’s reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine, increasing their availability in the synaptic cleft. This enhances neurotransmission in attention and impulse control.
Why is it appropriate:
In the first case, which refers to a 9-year-old with ADHD, methylphenidate will help decrease hyperactivity and impulsiveness and improve focus. It will also allow him to complete tasks such as homework, which could lead to better behavior in school and at home.
Benefits of Methylphenidate
Fast onset of action: Many formulations begin working within 30-60 minutes. Available on immediate-release (IR), extended-release (ER), and long-acting options which decrease the need to re-dose at school.
Methylphenidate has been in the market for a long period so is a well-known medication. Methylphenidate will help Malcolm improve focus and attention span, reduce distractibility and increase task completion.
Methylphenidate can also improve behavioral concerns as it decreases impulsive behavior and hyperactivity.
Methylphenidate disadvantages.
May need titration: Finding the correct dose often requires adjustment.
Appetite suppression: Malcolm is a 9 y/o that is still in the growing process. By suppressing the appetite this can lead to poor weight gain or growth delays, particularly in children. Some patients may experience insomnia and irritability or mood swings: especially when medication is wearing off.
Side effects to monitor will include periodic monitoring of height, weight, blood pressure, and heart rate.
Legal, Ethical, and Social Implications; Methylphenidate is a Schedule II controlled substance, requiring careful prescribing, monitoring, and secure storage. For Malcolm, regular follow-ups are essential.
Case 2
Medication; Amphetamine
Amphetamine mechanism of action
Amphetamines increase the release of dopamine and norepinephrine from presynaptic neurons and also interfere their reuptake, resulting in greater neurotransmitter availability in the prefrontal cortex and other brain regions associated with attention and executive function.
Why is medication appropriate for this patient?
The patient is struggling with completing tasks, the patient gets easily distracted, and suffers from impulsive behavior at work, amphetamines help to enhance attention, productivity, and reduce bein easily distracted. Successful treatment can drastically improve her confidence, workplace productivity, and interpersonal relationships.
Advantages of Amphetamine
Longer duration of action: Especially with extended-release formulations like Vyvanse, which can last 10–14 hours.
Consistent symptom relief: Helps improve organizational function, emotional regulation, and time management.
Combination of formulations: Available in short-acting, intermediate, and long-acting.
Efficacy in adults: Amphetamines are highly effective for ADHD treatment with longstanding supporting evidence.
Disadvantages Compared to Other Medication Options
Higher abuse potential: Amphetamines has a high risk of misuse and dependence compare to non-stimulants such as atomoxetine.
Patients may experience irritability when the medication wears off.
Greater cardiovascular effects: Stimulants can cause tachycardia and increase blood pressure.
Accessibility; High demand leads to the medication being backorder. A patient may experience difficulty obtaining their prescriptions or refills as it is a stimulant Schedule II classification.
Side Effects
Appetite suppression: May lead to weight loss or delayed growth in pediatrics, insomnia, Anxiety, mood swings, and dependence
Legal, Ethical, and Social Implications
Legal Implications: Amphetamines are Schedule II controlled substances. Prescribers must assess for misuse, and use prescription monitoring programs (PMPs). Patients must adhere to prescribed guidelines.
Ethical: Accurate diagnosis is critical. It would be unethical to prescribe just to improve performance without clear diagnosis. Patient was properly diagnosed by a psychologist, suporting the ethical decision to treat.
Social: There may be hesitance from some providers to prescribe ADHD stimulants. The patient might want to withhold the current diagnosis from coworkers and supervisors.
References
D’Aiello, B., Gessi, L., Menghini, D., Vicari, S., & De Rossi, P. (2025). Sleep disturbances in children with adhd on methylphenidate monotherapy: The role of dysregulation profile. Sleep Medicine , 128 , 153–158. Retrieved April 1, 2025, from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2025.02.001 Links to an external site.
Drugs.com. (2025a, March 12). Amphetamine . Retrieved April 1, 2025, from https://www.drugs.com/search.php?searchterm=amphetamine&a=1 Links to an external site.
Drugs.com. (2025b, March 12). Methylphenidate . Retrieved April 1, 2025, from https://www.drugs.com/search.php?searchterm=methylphenidate&a=1 Links to an external site.
Shang, C. Y., Yan, C. G., Lin, H. Y., Tseng, W. Y., Castellanos, F. X., & Gau, S. S. (2016). Differential effects of methylphenidate and atomoxetine on intrinsic brain activity in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychological Medicine , 46 (15), 3173–3185. Retrieved April 1, 2025, from https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291716001938 Links to an external site.
Wu, L., Zhao, D., Lan, Y., Jin, L., & Yang, L. (2025). Comparison of serious adverse effects of methylphenidate, atomoxetine and amphetamine in the treatment of adhd: An adverse event analysis based on the faers database. BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology , 26 (1). Retrieved April 1, 2025, from https://doi.org/10.1186/s40360-025-00868-5 Links to an external site.
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Linda Idi
Apr 1, 2025 6:58pm | Last reply Apr 7, 2025 8:52am
Reply from Linda Idi
Hello, professor and class,
In this discussion, I will compare the medication classes of amphetamines and non-stimulants for the treatment of ADHD in two patients: Malcolm, a 9-year-old child, and Jessica, a 32-year-old adult. I will outline the pros and cons of these medication options by considering their mechanisms of action, advantages and disadvantages, side effects, and potential legal, ethical, and social implications.
Patient 1: Malcolm (9-Year-Old Male)
Malcolm is a 9-year-old male diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), exhibiting symptoms of hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. He encounters challenges in the educational environment, such as interrupting during lessons, leaving his seat, and engaging in physical altercations with peers. At home, he struggles to complete household chores and is easily distracted. These behaviors align with the characteristics of combined presentation ADHD. Given these symptoms, it is imperative to evaluate pharmacological treatment options, specifically amphetamines and non-stimulants.
Amphetamines
Mechanism of Action : Amphetamines, including medications such as Adderall and Vyvanse, function by increasing the levels of norepinephrine and dopamine in the brain, particularly within regions responsible for attention and impulse control. For Malcolm, who primarily experiences challenges associated with hyperactivity and impulsivity, the stimulant properties of amphetamines can significantly enhance his concentration and reduce impulsive behaviors (Faraone et al., 2024).
Advantages for Malcolm:
Efficacy: Stimulants , such as Adderall, are frequently the first-line treatment for children diagnosed with ADHD, owing to their established efficacy in improving both attention deficits and hyperactive behaviors (Hartz et al., 2024). This is particularly relevant for addressing Malcolm’s difficulties in a school setting, including interruptions and inability to remain seated.
Rapid Onset: These medications demonstrate a quick onset of action, typically within 30 minutes, providing immediate therapeutic effects that can benefit Malcolm during critical situations, such as academic instruction or homework completion.
Disadvantages for Malcolm:
Side Effects: Common adverse effects associated with amphetamines in pediatric populations include appetite suppression, sleep disturbances, and potential increases in anxiety or irritability (Weibel et al., 2020). Given Malcolm’s existing challenges with focus and frustration, these side effects may exacerbate his mood or result in difficulties with eating and sleeping.
Misuse Concerns : Although misuse is generally not a significant concern for young children, long-term use of stimulants can carry a risk of dependence as they mature. It is essential to monitor Malcolm’s medication as he grows older to prevent potential misuse, either personally or among peers.
Legal, Ethical, and Social Considerations:
Legal: The prescription of amphetamines for children is subject to regulatory scrutiny; hence, healthcare providers must exercise caution regarding accurate diagnosis and monitoring procedures. Parental consent and ongoing supervision are essential to ensure appropriate medication utilization in Malcolm’s case.
Ethical: It is ethically critical to ensure that Malcolm’s parents are thoroughly informed about the potential side effects and risks associated with the medication, particularly concerning long-term implications. Additionally, it is advisable to discuss behavioral therapy as a complementary treatment approach.
Social: There may be societal stigma associated with the use of stimulant medications in educational environments. Peers may lack understanding of ADHD and the rationale for medication use, thereby creating potential social challenges for Malcolm.
Non-Stimulants:
Mechanism of Action: Non-stimulant medications, such as atomoxetine (Strattera), operate by selectively inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine in the brain. This mechanism improves attention without the stimulant effects on dopamine, which renders it less likely to induce anxiety or sleep disturbances (Hartz et al., 2024).
Advantages for Malcolm:
Fewer Side Effects: Non-stimulant medications are generally associated with a lower incidence of appetite suppression and sleep disruptions, a significant advantage for Malcolm, given his existing behavioral challenges and possible mood issues.
Reduced Risk of Misuse: Non-stimulants possess no potential for abuse, making them a safer option for prolonged use in children such as Malcolm, mitigating the risk of stimulant misuse in the future.
Disadvantages for Malcolm:
Slower Onset: In contrast to stimulants, non-stimulants may require several weeks to achieve their full therapeutic effect, which could be less advantageous for Malcolm, who necessitates more immediate symptom relief, particularly in academic settings (Weibel et al., 2020).
Lower Efficacy: Non-stimulants may not demonstrate the same level of effectiveness in addressing both hyperactivity and inattention when compared to stimulants. This may result in less efficacy in managing Malcolm’s combined ADHD symptoms (Schein et al., 2023).
Legal, Ethical, and Social Considerations:
Legal: While the prescription of non-stimulants is generally less regulated, healthcare providers must ensure that the diagnosis is accurate and that Malcolm’s condition warrants the use of a non-stimulant medication.
Ethical: Healthcare providers must ensure that parents are fully informed regarding the medication’s risks and benefits, as well as provide ongoing monitoring and behavioral interventions required to enhance Malcolm’s treatment outcomes.
Social: Since atomoxetine does not carry the same stigma associated with stimulant medications, Malcolm may experience reduced social pressure or bullying within the school environment, which may alleviate anxiety related to his medication use .
Patient 2: Jessica’s ADHD Challenges and Medication Options
Jessica is an adult diagnosed with ADHD who struggles with distractibility, impulsiveness, and completing tasks at work. She frequently engages in conversations with colleagues, which makes it difficult for her to stay on task and has negatively impacted on her performance and interpersonal relationships. Both stimulant and non-stimulant medication options should be considered for Jessica.
Amphetamines
Advantages for Jessica:
Efficacy: Stimulants such as Adderall or Vyvanse are effective in improving attention and reducing impulsivity, addressing Jessica’s challenges at work. These medications can help her maintain focus and complete tasks, potentially enhancing her job performance (Schein et al., 2023).
Rapid Action : These medications have a quick onset of action, allowing Jessica to experience relief from distractibility during work hours, which can be advantageous in a professional setting.
Disadvantages for Jessica:
Side Effects : Common side effects, such as increased anxiety, jitteriness, or insomnia, may interfere with Jessica’s work performance and overall well-being (Weibel et al., 2020). Managing these side effects in a professional environment can be challenging for adults.
Risk of Misuse : Although the risk of misuse is less significant in adults compared to adolescents, there is still a potential concern, especially if Jessica has a history of substance abuse (Schein et al., 2023). Access to stimulants without proper oversight could exacerbate this issue.
Legal, Ethical, and Social Considerations:
Legal: The prescription of amphetamines for ADHD is regulated, and Jessica’s provider must ensure that her diagnosis is well-supported by psychological evaluations. Additionally, workplace drug testing may complicate matters if Jessica is subject to such screenings.
Ethical : Ethical considerations include ensuring Jessica’s informed consent and weighing the potential benefits and risks of stimulant use, including the management of side effects in a professional environment.
Social: Jessica may face stigma at work due to her medication use, particularly in a professional environment where colleagues might view it negatively. This could lead to feelings of social isolation or misunderstanding.
Non-Stimulants:
Advantages for Jessica:
Lower Risk of Abuse: Non-stimulants like atomoxetine (Strattera) are not addictive, which is beneficial if Jessica has concerns about misuse or substance dependency (Hartz et al., 2024).
Fewer Side Effects : Non-stimulants typically have fewer side effects related to anxiety or sleep disturbances, which could be advantageous for Jessica, especially if she has a history of stress or difficulty managing sleep.
Disadvantages for Jessica:
Slower Onset: Non-stimulants have a slower onset of action and may take several weeks to show full effectiveness, which might not provide immediate relief for Jessica’s workplace challenges (Hartz et al., 2024).
Efficacy: Non-stimulants may not be as effective as stimulants in reducing impulsiveness or improving attention, potentially leaving Jessica with some residual ADHD symptoms, especially in a fast-paced work environment (Schein et al., 2023).
Legal, Ethical, and Social Considerations:
Legal: Similar to stimulant medications, the prescription of non-stimulants should be thoroughly documented, especially if Jessica is subject to workplace drug testing.
Ethical: Jessica’s provider must ensure she understands the implications of long-term medication use and any potential side effects. Informed consent is essential, particularly if any work-related issues arise due to the medication.
Social: Non-stimulants might have a lower stigma associated with them when it comes to ADHD treatment, which could help reduce potential workplace stigma. However, Jessica may still find it challenging to discuss her condition with coworkers.
Conclusion
Both medication options, of amphetamines and non-stimulants, have their advantages and disadvantages based on individual needs. For individuals who require immediate symptom control and have significant hyperactivity, amphetamines may be the most suitable option, although careful monitoring of side effects is essential. For Jessica, who is looking for a solution to her ADHD symptoms as an adult, non-stimulants may provide a safer long-term option with fewer side effects despite their slower onset. Ultimately, treatment must be tailored to the individual, taking into account both medical and social factors.
References:
Hartz, I., Madsstuen, N. H. H., Andersen, P. N., Handal, M., & Odsbu, I. (2024, November 5). Nationwide trends in the use of ADHD medications in the period 2006-2022: A study from the Norwegian prescription database. BMC Psychiatry, 24 (1), 767. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06199-9 Links to an external site.
Faraone, S. V., Bellgrove, M. A., Brikell, I., Cortese, S., Hartman, C. A., Hollis, C., Newcorn, J. H., Philipsen, A., Polanczyk, G. V., Rubia, K., Sibley, M. H., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2024, February 22). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 10 (1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-024-00495-0 Links to an external site.
Weibel, S., Menard, O., Ionita, A., Boumendjel, M., Cabelguen, C., Kraemer, C., Micoulaud-Franchi, J. A., Bioulac, S., Perroud, N., Sauvaget, A., Carton, L., Gachet, M., & Lopez, R. (2020, February). Practical considerations for the evaluation and management of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults. Encephale, 46 (1), 30-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2019.06.005 Links to an external site.
Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gauthier-Loiselle, M., Bungay, R., Arpin, E., Guerin, A., & Childress, A. (2023, November 23). Risk factors associated with newly diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: A retrospective case-control study. BMC Psychiatry, 23 (1), 870. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05359-7
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Natasha Hurley
Apr 1, 2025 4:17pm | Last reply Apr 5, 2025 2:17pm
Reply from Natasha Hurley
Throughout this discussion, I will present my arguments regarding medication use for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) treatment between Stimulants (Amphetamine and Methylphenidate) and Non-stimulants. The analysis includes evaluation of medicinal advantages and drawbacks for two ADHD patients named Malcolm who is a 9-year-old male and Jessica who is a 32-year-old female.
Pro: Stimulants (Amphetamine and Methylphenidate)
Mechanism of Action : Stimulant medications based on amphetamines together with methylphenidate cause the brain to increase the availability of neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine. Increased neurotransmitters allow patients with ADHD to achieve better attention span and enhanced focus and reduced impulsive behavior (Banaschewski et al., 2017). Both Malcolm and Jessica need stimulant medication as a treatment to handle daily activities affected by their ADHD characteristics, including homework completion and work focus management because these substances control ADHD symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity and impulsivity.
Advantages :
Stimulant medications stand as the leading ADHD treatment option because they produce substantial symptom relief in 70-80% of patients (Faraone et al., 2021). Malcolm and Jessica would benefit from this treatment because these medications activate rapidly within 30 minutes per research by Biederman et al. (2019). The medication generates certain unwanted effects, such as troubles with sleep and reduced food intake and headaches that might affect regular activities (Banaschewski et al., 2017). Clinicians need to handle prescription decisions with manufactured drugs by evaluating legal ethical and social factors along with the potential for adult misuse and addiction (Faraone et al., 2021).
Disadvantages :
Side Effects : The common adverse effects of this treatment involve sleep disturbances and appetite reduction together with headaches and stomachaches, according to research by Banaschewski et al. (2017). Malcolm may face intense difficulties with appetite loss and sleep disturbances which would harm his school performance because of these side effects.
Potential for Abuse : The addiction potential of stimulants and especially amphetamines poses a major issue when considering extended-term use (Faraone et al., 2021). Malcolm being a child faces less concern regarding stimulant misuse yet Jessica should receive extra attention since she has a substance abuse background and is an adult.
Legal, Ethical, and Social Implications :
Legal : Stimulant medications function as controlled substances since they possess the ability to create addictive behaviors among users. Medical authorities face regulatory obstacles while prescribing medication to children especially when using amphetamine-based drugs (Biederman et al., 2019).
Ethical : When prescribing stimulant drugs to children or adults health providers need to weigh both symptom relief advantages against the possible adverse effects combined with substance misuse risks (Faraone et al., 2021).
Social : The negative public attitude toward ADHD medications and particularly stimulants creates social judgments toward patients who take these medicines. Taking medication creates the potential for Jessica to experience colleagues’ negative opinions which might negatively impact her relationships at work.
Con: Non-Stimulants
Mechanism of Action : The non-stimulant psychiatric drugs atomoxetine and guanfacine operate according to distinct mechanisms compared to stimulants. Atomoxetine functions as a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor that raises brain norepinephrine similar to stimulants at doses which prevent stimulant effects (Pringsheim et al., 2016). The medication serves to improve focus while reducing impulsivity while eliminating the danger of drug misuse. Guanfacine functions as a brain prefrontal cortex alpha-2 adrenergic agonist to improve attention and control impulses (Biederman et al., 2017).
Advantages :
Lower Abuse Potential : Non-stimulant medications lack any potential for abuse making them particularly beneficial for patients such as Jessica who possess substance abuse history (Pringsheim et al., 2016). Patients who are susceptible to addiction find non-stimulant medications appealing because they present no risk of abuse.
Fewer Side Effects : Non-stimulants show superior tolerability because they generate lesser side effects than stimulants. The lower sleep impairment and appetite reduction rates that appear in non-stimulant drugs (Biederman et al., 2017) make these medications suitable for Malcolm who experiences these particular side effects.
Disadvantages :
Slower Onset : Non-stimulant medications require an extended period before patients can experience their maximum therapeutic advantages and typically need weeks of treatment to be effective according to Pringsheim et al. (2016). Malcolm faces potential challenges because he will need rapid symptom relief to control his academic conduct.
Less Efficacy : Non-stimulants deliver effective results for numerous patients yet their therapeutic power remains lower than that of stimulants. Research demonstrates that non-stimulants achieve good results for between fifty and sixty percent of patients according to Pringsheim et al. (2016). Jessica might fail to achieve adequate symptom control through non-stimulants because her work and social difficulties need quicker and potent symptom management.
Legal, Ethical, and Social Implications :
Legal : Non-stimulant medications are less limited by restrictions from the law which allows doctors to provide them relatively easily to monitor adult patients specifically like Jessica according to Biederman et al. (2017).
Ethical : The process of prescribing non-stimulants requires healthcare providers to account for the medication’s delayed onset which can lead patients to become dissatisfied. Patients need realistic expectation management with supportive care from healthcare providers during non-stimulant medication first months of usage (Pringsheim et al., 2016).
Social : Some social groups believe ADHD treatment achieves legitimacy only when stimulant medications are used which causes them to view non-stimulant medications as less effective. The misconceptions about non-stimulant medications could affect the reception Jessica receives from her colleagues and social contacts regarding her treatment.
Conclusion
The therapeutic advantages and side effects of stimulant and non-stimulant medications produce distinct features when treating ADHD symptoms. Amphetamines and Methylphenidate demonstrate quick effects and strong performance but patients must consider the dangers of side effects with both potential misuse risks. Non-stimulants provide substance abuse safety for patients but their effects develop more slowly and might be less powerful than stimulants in treating ADHD symptoms. The best treatment for Malcolm could be stimulants because they deliver rapid symptom control yet the optimal choice for Jessica is a non-stimulant because of her work history and decreased chance of addiction.
References
Banaschewski, T., Buitelaar, J. K., & Roy, A. (2017). The role of stimulant medication in the treatment of ADHD: A systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26 (5), 521-536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-0952-6 Links to an external site.
Biederman, J., Mick, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2019). The effects of stimulant medications on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 176 (7), 541-549. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.18070902 Links to an external site.
Faraone, S. V., Asherson, P., Biederman, J., & Mick, E. (2021). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet, 379 (9830), 376-385. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60750-9 Links to an external site.
Pringsheim, T., Gardner, D. M., & Addington, D. (2016). Non-stimulant treatment options for ADHD. CNS Drugs, 30 (5), 451-462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40263-016-0351-9 Links to an external site.
Neurocognitive Medications
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is primary characterized by persistent and trans-situational patterns of age-inappropriate levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with normal development, personal functioning and well-being ( Goldin, 2023). Even though ADHD is prevalent in children, it can persist trough adolescent and adulthood. ADHD has been associated with reduced academic performance in children and adolescents and also can impede social and occupational achievement in the workplace. ADHD is a multifaceted neuro-disorder and it can be challenging to manage and reach optimized patients outcomes. Stimulants medications are commonly used to manage ADHD, not to cure them.
The two classes of stimulants that I choose are: Amphetamine and Non-stimulant
Amphetamine
Mechanism of action
Amphetamine is a releasing agent and reuptake inhibitor of dopamine and norepinephrine in the prefrontal cortex, which enhance the efficiency of information processing at pyramidal neurons, resulting in the improvement of symptoms in ADHD (Stahl, 2021). This medication class is the recommended first-line therapy in children because of their greater efficacy (AAP, 2019). Studies have shown hat approximately 80% of children with ADHD have fewer symptoms after finding the correct stimulant medication and dosage (AAP, 2019)
Patient 1
In this case we have a pediatric patient, 9 year old with ADHD/hyperactivity who cannot focus in class and is easily distracted.
Advantages /Disadvantages of Amphetamines
Amphetamines meds are available in tablets, capsules but also in liquid form for children. This is an advantage for children that are not able to swallow pills. They have to be started at a lower dosage and adjust weekly according to the patient’s response to the medication.
Amphetamine versus Non stimulant
Evidence has shown that for elementary school- aged students, stimulant medications such as Amphetamine is strong and sufficient for the management of ADHD copied to Non stimulant meds (AAP , 2019). Non-stimulants have more cardiac side effects and should be prescribed with more precautions
Possible side effects of amphetamine
The most common side effects of amphetamines are loss of appetite, insomnia, nervousness, social withdrawal and jitteriness in some cases (APA, 2019). There is also some growth concern associated with long term use of amphetamine so pediatric patient needs to be regular evaluated by their PCP. It also can cause tics in children and may prompt a discontinuation of the medication.
Legal, ethical and social implications with Amphetamine prescription
FDA legally approves amphetamines, for management of ADHD in children and this has to be explained to patient caregivers.
For example for this pediatric patient, it is important to explain to patient that amphetamine is a controlled medication that the child may develop a dependency NURS-6630 Week 6: Discussion Patient Case Scenario Debate.
Parents might be worried about the side effects of the medication and want to avoid given it o their child for another reason. Assessing the disposition of the parents towards the medication management is important. The American Academy of Podiatry (AAP,2019) recommends behavioral therapy along with ADHD medication. This child can also benefit from additional behavioral interventions in the classroom.
Reassure parents that the primary will be working closely with them and adjust treatment as needed to provide the best possible outcome for the family and the child.
Patient 2
This patient is a 32-year-old patient with ADHD that is struggling in her workplace and here to discuss medication management.
As explained by Stahl (2021), it is important to assess other comorbidities in the patients such as anxiety, substance abuse or mood disorders, because without addressing those, it is difficulty to get to an optimized treatment of ADHD in adults populations. Assuming that this patient does not have any of these comorbidities, Amphetamine is also a good choice in this case.
Side effects are almost similar to the ones in children. Amphetamine can also cause dose-dependence and may be managed by either decreasing the dose or changing the time when medication is taken. Some adults may experience mood lability as an adverse side effect and it is recommended to switch to another stimulant or switching to non-stimulant medication (NIMH, 2024).
Non-Stimulants
Mechanism of action
Non-stimulant such as selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor work by increasing norepinephrine levels in the brain.
Non-stimulant class of medications such as Atomoxetine, clonidine and guafacine are also approved for the treatment of ADHD.
Advantage /disadvantage of non-stimulants
Non-stimulant medications are the next best treatment option for ADHD but not as effective as stimulants. It is recommended to try a non-stimulant meds if patient having intolerable side effects ( Kolar et al., 2008). For adult’s patient such as Patient 2, if she is not able to tolerate Amphetamine, we can use non-stimulant options such as atomoxetine.
An important advantage of non-stimulant such as Atomoxetine, is that, it does not have an abuse potential. This is very important consideration when it comes to adults who are at risk for substance abuse. Other advantage is that Atomoxetine is once a day, less rebound and has mild anti-anxiety effect (CADDRA, 2006).
Side effects of non-stimulant meds
When taking Atomoxetine for example, patient may experience some side effects such as headache, increase BP, increased HR, weight loss mild, sexual dysfunction, upset stomach and poor appetite. Regular follow up sis advised.
Legal, ethical consideration with non-stimulant prescriptions
Before prescribing the non-stimulant medications, we should explain medication action, informed consent with the patient to be able to make her own decision. Side effects should be discussed with patient and caregivers. Assure the patient that confidentiality will be maintained.
Conclusion
Amphetamine and non-stimulants are both class of medications used in the management of ADHD. It can be used together depend on the symptoms we are treating.
For this two patients discussed in this case, Amphetamine should be considered as a first line of treatment and adjust as tolerated.
References
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2019). Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-2528
Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines (CADDRA). ( 2006). Appendices Medications for ADHD.
Kolar, D. , Keller, A., Golfinopoulos, M., Cumyn, L., Hechtman, L. ( 2008). Treatment of adults with attention-deficit /hyperactivity disorder. doi: 10.2147/ndt.s6985. PMID: 18728745; PMCID: PMC251838
Goldin, S.S. (2023). Fast Facts for psychopharmacology for nurse practitioners. Springer Publishing.
Stahl, S. M. (2021). Stahl’s essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications (5 th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
National Institute of Mental Health. (2024). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd Links to an external site.
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Doris Dickson
Apr 1, 2025 1:42pm
Reply from Doris Dickson
Week 6: Discussion
Patient 2:
Jessica is a 32-year-old female that was recently diagnosed with ADHD. She was referred to your office by the psychologist that completed the ADHD assessment. Jessica has always struggled in school and jobs. She is often “written up” at her job for not completing tasks that are assigned to her. She becomes easily distracted by her other co-workers. She finds herself spending a lot of time conversing with colleagues. Her colleagues are frequently annoyed with her for constantly talking to them and interrupting their work and tasks. Jessica is here to discuss medication options to treat ADHD.
Proposed Mechanism Action of the Medication
Amphetamines like Adderall increase the amounts of dopamine and norepinephrine in the human brain. Stimulants hypothetically increase the availability of both dopamine and norepinephrine in prefrontal cortex, which enhances the efficiency of information processing at pyramidal neurons, resulting in the improvement of symptoms in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Stahl, S. 2010). In a nutshell, neurotransmitters are said to be linked with attention, focus, and impulse control, that are naturally lacking in individuals with ADHD. And enhancing these neurotransmitters, amphetamines can possibly help in improving Jessica’s attention span and decrease her hyperactive and impulsive behaviors.
Advantages:
Amphetamines are highly effective in decreasing ADHD symptoms in various patients.
• The short-acting and long-acting drug form, offers flexibility in managing the symptoms.
• They are widely available and frequently prescribed with well-known dosing guidelines.
Disadvantages:
Its side effect has been linked with increased heart rate, insomnia, anxiety, and potential for dependence, tolerance or abuse.
• It is not ideal or recommendable for patients with history of substance abuse, cardiovascular disease, or severe anxiety.
Methylphenidate , such as Ritalin or Concerta, work by obstructing the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine, like amphetamines but through a different mechanism. As a result of the inhibition, it results to increased levels of the neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft, enhancing attention and reducing impulsivity and hyperactivity.
Advantages:
Effective in managing ADHD symptoms.
• Available in short-acting, intermediate-acting, and extended-release which enhances the flexibility of managing the symptoms.
• It has a lower potential for abuse compared to Amphetamines.
Disadvantages:
Have side effects like, insomnia, loss of appetite, weight loss, increased heart rate, and blood pressure.
• Caution when used for patients with a history of cardiac disease and anxiety disorders.
Comparative Analysis
Amphetamines Over Methylphenidate:
• Greater Efficacy
*Longer Duration leading in reducing the need for multiple doses throughout the day.
Methylphenidate Over Amphetamines:
• Lower Abuse Potential compared to amphetamines.
• Lower or fewer side effect record with methylphenidate.
Both Possible side effects or considerations needed to be evaluated
The two classes of medications likely to increase heart rate or blood pressure. It is essential that clinicians monitor cardiovascular health patients.
The two classes of medications can worsen anxiety or mood swings. Thus, patients with co-existing mental health disorders should be closely monitored.
The Long-term use of the two medications, both in children or adolescent are likely to affect the rate of developments.
Legal, Ethical, and Social Implications:
Legal
• Amphetamines, a Schedule II controlled substances, emanates a firm guideline about prescribing and dispensing. The end result can lead to possible legal penalties for misuse or alteration.
• Methylphenidate, a Schedule II controlled substance which has slightly lower tendency of an abuse potential, is still subject to strict regulatory control.
Ethical
• Prescribing amphetamines must be done ethically, with cautious deliberation of medical history and potential for substance abuse by the patient. Informed consent/permission is vital.
• With Methylphenidate, similar importance must be adhered to by ensuring that patients understand the risks, benefits, and how to properly use the medication.
Social
• With Amphetamines, patients are likely to face the stigma of been judged or misunderstood amongst their peers or colleagues.
• With Methylphenidate, although stigmatized, it’s been perceived as a safer option.
In summary, stimulants are generally the first-line treatment for ADHD, but non-stimulants can be a valued substitute or adjunct therapy for patients who cannot tolerate or respond well to stimulants. The decision for clinician to which medication to prescribed must be individualized, by taking into account the patient specific symptoms, medical history, and personal preferences, along having a detailed lay man term discussion of the drug potential risks and benefits. This should be applied in the case of Jessica. In her case, both amphetamines and methylphenidate are likely to offer feasible choice for treating Jessica’s ADHD case, with each exhibiting their own set of benefits and downsides.
.
References
Stephen M. Stahl (2010). Mechanism of Action of Stimulants in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. The Journal Clinical Psychiatry 2010;71(1):12-13. https://www.psychiatrist.com/jcp/mechanism-action-stimulants-attention-deficit-hyperactivity/ Links to an external site.
Biederman, J., & Faraone, S. V. (2005). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet, 366(9481), 237-248.
Swanson, J. M., Wigal, S. B., & Volkow, N. D. (2011). Long-term outcomes of stimulant medication in ADHD: The Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD (MTA) at 8 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(11), 1125-1136.
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Beatrice Fertil
Apr 1, 2025 12:20pm | Last reply Apr 2, 2025 11:05am
Reply from Beatrice Fertil
Beatrice’s main post with references
Patient Case Scenario Debate
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is not an age-specific disease and thus affects both young and old populations. Although there are diverse pharmacotherapies for managing this condition, there is always debate on which drug is the best. The essay argues for the use of methylphenidate medications over amphetamines for patients with ADHD.
Why Methylphenidate is the Preferred Treatment
The mechanism of methylphenidate involves blocking the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine while enhancing cognitive function and improving impulse control (Cunill et al., 2021). Storebø et al. (2023) state that the drug is effective for ADHD management across all ages, thus ideal for both 9-year-old Malcolm and 32-year-old Jessica.
Advantages of Methylphenidate (MPH)
The potential for Methylphenidate to induce drug-induced psychosis is reduced across adolescent and adult patients, hence providing a safer option for ADHD treatment (Hamard et al., 2024). Patients gain enhanced management of their treatment plan when using extended-release and short-acting methylphenidate formulations because this treatment approach helps decrease adverse impacts such as insomnia and appetite reduction. The low-to-no risk of dependence and misuse makes MPH appropriate for patients requiring extended treatment of ADHD symptoms. The availability of short-acting and extended-release forms of the drug matches the needs of individuals who need sustained control of their symptoms.
Why Amphetamines Are Less Suitable
The dopamine-releasing properties of amphetamines enhance their potency while elevating the likelihood of dependence (Hamard et al., 2024). Amphetamines will more frequently cause psychotic symptoms, particularly among young adults and adolescents, hence proving less appropriate for Jessica’s treatment. Long-term health risks arise from cardiovascular side effects produced by amphetamines.
Conclusion
Research shows Methylphenidate represents a safe and effective solution for treating ADHD while presenting a reduced potential for psychotic episodes and addiction. Methylphenidate stands as the most suitable medication option to treat ADHD patients across both pediatric and adult age groups because of its safety features and adaptability.
Reference
Cunill, R., Castells, X., & Tobias, A. (2021). Methylphenidate for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: a narrative review. Psychopharmacology , 238(10), 2667–2691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-021-05946-0 Links to an external site.
Hamard, J., Rousseau, V., Durrieu, G., Garcia, P., Yrondi, A., Sommet, A., … & Montastruc, F. (2024). Psychosis with use of amphetamine drugs, methylphenidate and atomoxetine in adolescent and adults. BMJ Ment Health , 27 (1). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjment-2023-300876 Links to an external site.
Storebø, O. J., Storm, M. R. O., Ribeiro, J. P., Skoog, M., Groth, C., Callesen, H. E., … & Gluud, C. (2023). Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , (3). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009885.pub3 Links to an external site.
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Beatrice Fertil
Apr 1, 2025 12:03pm
Reply from Beatrice Fertil
Beatrice’s main post:
Patient Case Scenario Debate
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is not an age-specific disease and thus affects both young and old populations. Although there are diverse pharmacotherapies for managing this condition, there is always debate on which drug is the best. The essay argues for the use of methylphenidate medications over amphetamines for patients with ADHD.
Why Methylphenidate is the Preferred Treatment
The mechanism of methylphenidate involves blocking the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine while enhancing cognitive function and improving impulse control (Cunill et al., 2021). Storebø et al. (2023) state that the drug is effective for ADHD management across all ages, thus ideal for both 9-year-old Malcolm and 32-year-old Jessica.
Advantages of Methylphenidate (MPH)
The potential for Methylphenidate to induce drug-induced psychosis is reduced across adolescent and adult patients, hence providing a safer option for ADHD treatment (Hamard et al., 2024). Patients gain enhanced management of their treatment plan when using extended-release and short-acting methylphenidate formulations because this treatment approach helps decrease adverse impacts such as insomnia and appetite reduction. The low-to-no risk of dependence and misuse makes MPH appropriate for patients requiring extended treatment of ADHD symptoms. The availability of short-acting and extended-release forms of the drug matches the needs of individuals who need sustained control of their symptoms.
Why Amphetamines Are Less Suitable
The dopamine-releasing properties of amphetamines enhance their potency while elevating the likelihood of dependence (Hamard et al., 2024). Amphetamines will more frequently cause psychotic symptoms, particularly among young adults and adolescents, hence proving less appropriate for Jessica’s treatment. Long-term health risks arise from cardiovascular side effects produced by amphetamines.
Conclusion
Research shows Methylphenidate represents a safe and effective solution for treating ADHD while presenting a reduced potential for psychotic episodes and addiction. Methylphenidate stands as the most suitable medication option to treat ADHD patients across both pediatric and adult age groups because of its safety features and adaptability.
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UH
Uzoamaka Promise Harrison
Apr 1, 2025 9:54am | Last reply Apr 4, 2025 8:10pm
Reply from Uzoamaka Promise Harrison
Main Post
Patient 1: Malcolm (9-year-old with ADHD, Combined Presentation)
One common medication that is taken by children with ADHD is amphetamine because these chemicals have an impact on the chemicals dopamine and norepinephrine which control concentration and impulse control. They have a quick onset, making them effective for immediate symptom relief (Arkell et al., 2022). However, it has some side effects including insomnia, loss of appetite, and the possibility of being abused. Since they are classified under the controlled substances, they should always be closely monitored. Also, there are ethical issues of dependence, and the latter is unfavorable perception of stimulant consumption by children.
Non-stimulant occupies the same receptors as stimulants but do not engross dopamine making it safer for children who suffer from anxiety. They have relatively fewer side effects involving appetite and sleep but may take several weeks to produce the maximum effect which may further affect their academic enhancement (Radonjić et al., 2023). Even if they neglect stimulant-related risks, they do not necessarily do so with hyperactivity. They are easier to prescribe in a legal way but their side effect is that their effectiveness is delayed which may hamper school performance. From social point of view, parents may have a preference for them over stimulants.
Patient 2: Jessica (32-year-old female with ADHD)
Regarding the choice of medication for Jessica, I would prescribe amphetamines because they increase dopamine and norepinephrine quickly and affect the executive functions. Compared to other agents, they are well researched in adults and could enhance her work productivity greatly. However, the medication has certain side effects like anxiety, insomnia, and heart issues (Steinbuchel Greenhill 2020). Since amphetamines belong to the controlled substances the prescription requires monitoring, and there is an ethical issue of overprescribing. Another reason may be socially, there are prejudices when it comes to taking medications for adult ADHD.
Non- stimulants may be safer either in case Jessica suffers from anxiety or has a history of any substance usage. These medications help in raising the levels of norepinephrine and are useful in addressing the issues of attention and impulsivity without the likelihood of the patient becoming addicted (Radonjić et al., 2023). However, they may take longer to occur and this is likely to affect her in terms of the job performance in the initial phase. They are also easier to prescribe from the legal point of view, and the impact on the society is not as negative as that of stimulants. In ethical terms, this slow effectiveness has to be considered against her desire for relief from the symptoms of her condition.
References
Arkell, T. R., Bradshaw, K., Downey, L. A., & Hayley, A. C. (2022). Acute effects of amphetamine and related psychostimulants on impulsivity: A systematic review of clinical trials. Addiction Biology , 27 (2). https://doi.org/10.1111/adb.13128 Links to an external site.
Radonjić, N. V., Bellato, A., Khoury, N. M., Cortese, S., & Faraone, S. V. (2023). Nonstimulant medications for attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. CNS Drugs , 37 (5), 381-397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40263-023-01005-8 Links to an external site.
Steinbuchel, P., & Greenhill, L. (2020). Stimulants: Definition, pharmacology, indications, side effects, and treatment strategies. NeuroPsychopharmacotherapy , 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56015-1_324-1 Links to an external site.
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Yamila Casas Lay
Apr 1, 2025 5:06am | Last reply Apr 2, 2025 5:42pm
Reply from Yamila Casas Lay
Selected Medication Classes: Amphetamine and Methylphenidate
Both cases involve patients diagnosed with attention-deficiency/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Malcolm in patient 1’s case study is a child in grade 4, while in patient 2, the patient is Jessica, an adult suffering from the problem. According to Veronica (2021), ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder whose traits include persistent patterns of hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity. It interferes with the daily development and functioning of a person. The authors wrote that the etiology of the condition is diverse, including the presence of variants of some genes and environmental factors. In both case studies, the reported symptoms are linked with the condition, for example, fidgeting, hyperactivity, blurting out answers, hitting other children, a lack of focus, forgetfulness, distraction, a struggle in jobs and school, not completing assigned tasks, and annoying colleagues.
Both methylphenidate and amphetamine are stimulants and increase the dopamine and norepinephrine levels in the brain. However, the mechanisms may be different. Henry et al. (2022) wrote that amphetamine primarily acts as a releasing agent and reuptake inhibitor. On the other hand, methylphenidate acts as a reuptake inhibitor. The increase in the dopamine and norepinephrine levels in the brain is critical and impacts the executive and attentional functions, hence managing the symptoms of ADHD. NURS-6630 Week 6: Discussion Patient Case Scenario Debate
There are advantages of using methylphenidate and amphetamine in the management of ADHD. According to Dutta et al. (2022), the aspect of increasing the central dopamine and norepinephrine activity by the two drugs, impacting the executive and attentional function of a person, is an advantage. The two are the first-line medications for the disease. However, there are associated side effects, including increased blood pressure and heart rate, potential for abuse, psychosis, insomnia, mood swings, and decreased appetite.
Compared to other medications for ADHD, for example, alpha-adrenergic Agonist, methylphenidate and amphetamine have a higher efficiency in the management of ADHD, more so in the reduction of associated symptoms. However, in terms of side effects and potential abuse, Alpha Adrenergic Agonist as a non-stimulant is better compared to the two drugs.
Both methylphenidate and amphetamine may be effective in increasing the dopamine and norepinephrine levels in the brain and impacting the executive and attentional functions in a patient. However, they have side effects and there are considerations to evaluate. For example, they have the potential for abuse, can induce psychosis, bring about irritability, headache, and stomach pain, produce sleep disturbances, increase blood pressure and heart rate, decrease appetite, and cause anxiety.
The legal consideration in the use of methylphenidate and amphetamine is the need to have prescriptions done by a qualified and registered healthcare provider. The ethical consideration is the need to uphold the autonomy or independence of the patient and seek informed consent. The social consideration is the observation of some social behaviors.
References
Dutta, C. N., Ombao, H., & Douglas, P. K. (2022). Neuroprotection in late life attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review of pharmacotherapy and phenotype across the lifespan. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience , 16 , 938501. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.938501 Links to an external site.
Henry, T. R., Fogleman, N. D., Nugiel, T., & Cohen, J. R. (2022). Effect of methylphenidate on functional controllability: A preliminary study in medication-naïve children with ADHD. Translational Psychiatry , 12 (1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-022-02283-4 Links to an external site.
Verónica, W. (2021). ADHD: Reviewing the causes and evaluating solutions. Journal of Personalized Medicine , 11 (3), 166. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11030166 Links to an external site.
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Arnaud Momo Fopa
Apr 1, 2025 1:10am
Reply from Arnaud Momo Fopa
What is the proposed mechanism of action of the medication(s)? Why might this be appropriate for the patients?
Amphetamines increase the availability of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain by promoting their release and blocking their reuptake. This improves attention, focus, and impulse control (Paul, 2021). For Malcolm, a 9-year-old with ADHD combined presentation, amphetamines are appropriate because they can quickly reduce hyperactivity and impulsivity, allowing for better classroom behavior and task completion. For Jessica, a 32-year-old with workplace challenges due to distractibility and disorganization, amphetamines may enhance her ability to concentrate and follow through with tasks.
Alpha-adrenergic agonists, such as clonidine and guanfacine, act on alpha-2 adrenergic receptors in the brain to reduce sympathetic nervous system activity. This results in a calming effect, which can help with symptoms like impulsivity, aggression, and hyperactivity. These medications may be appropriate for Malcolm, especially if he experiences difficulty with emotional regulation or has trouble winding down at night. However, for Jessica, whose primary symptoms involve inattention and executive dysfunction, alpha agonists may not be as effective as stimulant medications.
What are the advantages or disadvantages to your class of medication (options for different administration, length of duration, etc.)?
Amphetamines are available in multiple formulations, including short-acting, intermediate, and extended-release, allowing for individualized treatment plans (Fu & Wang, 2023). Extended-release options offer the convenience of once-daily dosing, which is particularly helpful for school-aged children like Malcolm. These medications also provide a rapid onset of action and significant symptom improvement. However, disadvantages include the risk of insomnia, appetite suppression, and mood changes. They require careful titration and monitoring for potential misuse or dependence, especially in adults. Also, Alpha adrenergic agonists are non-stimulant medications with lower abuse potential. They are often used as monotherapy or adjuncts to stimulants, especially in children with comorbid conditions like tics or sleep disturbances. Extended-release formulations allow for smoother dosing throughout the day. However, these medications often take several weeks to show full effectiveness and may cause side effects such as fatigue, low blood pressure, or dizziness. They are less effective in addressing core inattentive symptoms of ADHD.
What are the advantages or disadvantages to the other medication options?
Compared to alpha adrenergic agonists, amphetamines provide stronger and faster symptom relief, particularly for inattention and hyperactivity. They are generally considered first-line treatment for ADHD due to their proven efficacy (Fu & Wang, 2023). However, they also come with higher risks of side effects and misuse, particularly in adolescent and adult populations. On the other hand, alpha agonists may be safer for long-term use in children or individuals with a history of substance abuse. While they may help reduce behavioral issues like impulsivity and aggression, they do not significantly improve attention span or executive function in most cases. Their slower onset and sedating effects can also impact functioning, particularly for adults like Jessica.
What possible side effects or considerations need to be evaluated?
With amphetamines, common side effects include decreased appetite, sleep disturbances, headaches, mood swings, and potential increases in blood pressure or heart rate (Fu & Wang, 2023). In children, there may also be concerns about growth suppression with long-term use. Regular monitoring and dosage adjustments are essential. In adults like Jessica, cardiovascular health must be considered, especially if underlying conditions exist. For alpha adrenergic agonists, side effects such as drowsiness, dizziness, dry mouth, and hypotension should be closely monitored (Root-Bernstein, 2022). These medications can be particularly sedating, which may affect daytime functioning, especially in adults. Gradual tapering is also required when discontinuing to avoid rebound hypertension.
Provide one example for each consideration—legal, ethical, and social implications—for prescribing the medication category.
Legal consideration : Amphetamines are classified as Schedule II controlled substances, requiring strict documentation and follow-up (Guan et al., 2023). Alpha-2 Prescribers must ensure proper storage, prescribing limits, and regular evaluations, especially when treating adults like Jessica.
Ethical consideration : There is an ethical obligation to avoid over-prescription or misuse of stimulants. In pediatric cases like Malcolm’s, prescribers must ensure that medication is part of a comprehensive treatment plan including behavioral support, rather than used as a quick fix for disruptive behavior.
Social consideration : Both Malcolm and Jessica may face stigma around ADHD and the use of stimulants. Malcolm may be labeled as a “troublemaker” or seen as overly medicated, while Jessica might feel judged or misunderstood at work due to her diagnosis and treatment. Educating families, patients, and communities about ADHD and treatment options can help reduce stigma and promote understanding.
References
Fu, Y. P., & Wang, Y. (2023). Amphetamines abuse and depression: Focus on TRPC channels. Experimental Neurology , 364 , 114391.
Guan, M., Fanelli, D., Verbeek, T., Warfield Jr, D. J., & Liu, H. (2023). Alpha-2 Adrenergic Agonists. In First Aid Perioperative Ultrasound: Acute Pain Manual for Surgical Procedures (pp. 169-194). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Paul, A. (2021). Adrenergic agonists. Introduction to Basics of Pharmacology and Toxicology: Volume 2: Essentials of Systemic Pharmacology: From Principles to Practice , 41-53.
Root-Bernstein, R. (2022). Adrenergic agonists and antagonists enhance opioid receptor activity. In The Neurobiology, Physiology, and Psychology of Pain (pp. 79-89). Academic Press.
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NA
Nancy Ansah
Mar 31, 2025 3:30pm
Reply from Nancy Ansah
For this discussion, I have selected these two classes of medications used to treat ADHD: Methylphenidate and Non-Stimulant medications:
Methylphenidate
Mechanism of Action
Methylphenidate is a central nervous system stimulant whose primary action is to elevate brain levels of dopamine and norepinephrine. It inhibits their reuptake in the brain, thereby their availability in the synaptic cleft increases (Verghese & Abdijadid, 2023). This process leads to increased concentration, reduces hyperactivity, and facilitates impulse control. For Malcolm (9 years old), methylphenidate would be appropriate because it affects both the inattention and hyperactivity symptoms of ADHD. In Jessica’s situation, methylphenidate can help improve her distractibility and impulsivity issues at the workplace.
Advantages
Rapid onset of action: Methylphenidate is fast-acting (Verghese & Abdijadid, 2023), which is best in school or work environments where faster improvement is needed.
Multiple formulations: It comes in immediate-release, extended-release, and long-acting forms, providing convenience with dosing schedules and duration of action.
Well-established effectiveness: It is among the most researched drugs for ADHD and has a well-established history of effectiveness.
Disadvantages:
Side effects: Insomnia, loss of appetite, increased heart rate, and risk of heightened anxiety or irritability are common side effects.
Short acting (for immediate-release formulation): The immediate-release formulation (PubChem, 2019), requires multiple doses per day, which can be difficult for Malcolm if he has to manage multiple doses while at school.
Abuse potential: As a stimulant, methylphenidate has an abuse potential, especially in teenagers or young adults.
Side Effects/Considerations:
Legal: Methylphenidate is a controlled drug due to its potential for abuse. The prescribing clinician must consider this when treating individuals who may have a history of drug abuse.
Ethical: Ethical concerns include long-term administration of the stimulant drug in children like Malcolm, where there may be concern regarding their developing habit or drug abuse in later life.
Social: Stigmatisation is likely, particularly in children. Children on stimulant drugs can have problems with acceptance by educators or peers, and some may face adverse social consequences.
Non-Stimulant Medications (e.g. Atomoxetine)
Mechanism of Action
Atomoxetine, a non-stimulant, is one such drug that selectively inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine (Fedder et al., 2023). It has minimal effect on dopamine levels but still increases the level of norepinephrine in the synapse, which can improve attention and concentration in ADHD patients ( Drugs & Medications , n.d.). Atomoxetine may be a suitable option for Jessica since it lacks the abuse liability of stimulants.
Advantages:
No potential for abuse: Atomoxetine is not a controlled substance, so it is a safer option for substance abuse patients or those at risk, such as Jessica.
Long-acting: Atomoxetine is a once-a-day medication, which is easier to manage for adults and older children who have difficulty with more than one dose (Fedder et al., 2023).
Fewer side effects: It has a lower incidence of sleep disturbance or appetite suppression compared to stimulants, making it preferable to Malcolm if these are a concern.
Disadvantages:
Slower onset of action: Atomoxetine may take weeks to achieve its full effect, which makes it less ideal in the event that instantaneous relief of symptoms is required.
Possible side effects: Possible side effects include stomach discomfort, tiredness, and mood changes, which restricts its use in certain patients.
Side Effects/Considerations
Legal: Atomoxetine is not controlled, but the prescriber still needs to ensure proper documentation, particularly in the case of adults like Jessica, who may need to be monitored for abuse of other medications.
Ethical: There may be ethical concerns in prescribing a medication like atomoxetine to children when it takes longer to exert its effects, thereby causing frustration among parents and teachers.
Social: Social considerations include the threat that individuals on atomoxetine, especially children, can be ostracized or stigmatized compared to their peers on more rapidly acting stimulant medications.
References
Drugs & Medications . (n.d.). Www.webmd.com. https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-64629/strattera-oral/details
Fedder, D., Patel, H., & Saadabadi, A. (2023, March 27). Atomoxetine . PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493234/
PubChem. (2019). Methylphenidate . Nih.gov; PubChem. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/4158
Verghese, C., & Abdijadid, S. (2023, January 2). Methylphenidate . Nih.gov; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482451/ NURS-6630 Week 6: Discussion Patient Case Scenario Debate
